HISTORY NOTES FOR FORM TWO

TOPIC 1: INTERACTION AMONG THE PEOPLE OF AFRICA

Interaction was the way in which people from a given community came into contact with another community.   or interaction was a state in which people from one community got into contact with one another. The contacts among African people resulted from their various struggles to meet their daily requirements and further social and economic development. Before colonialism, African communities had social and economic interactions.

A) SOCIAL INTERACTION:

Social interaction took place through migration, religion, war, music, medicine and marriage.

1. MIGRATION

East Africa belongs to four main language groups namely the Khoisan, the Cushites, the Nilotes and the Bantu. Historical evidences show that the earliest inhabitants of East Africa were of Khoisan origin. Their speech is described as had “click” sound. It was similar to the language of present day KhoiKhoi and San of South Africa. They were nomadic hunters and gathers. These early large groups interacted with the larger Cushites, Bantu and the Nilotes communities that began settling in East Africa from the first century A.D. The remnants of them include Sandawe and Hadzabe of Tanzania and the Okiek (Dorobo) of Kenya. The origin home kind of the Nilotes was in the Nile valley in Sudan. Some Bantu communities of East Africa included Nyamwezi, Sukuma, Chagga and Pare of Tanzania, kikuyu, Kamba. Luhya of Kenya and Baganda, Basoga and Banyoro of Uganda. Through interaction of one community practiced medicine interacted with another led to some changes such as introduction of iron technology in East Africa.

2. RELIGION

Religion played a crucial role in all African societies. Religious beliefs were taken seriously and affected every phase of life. There was a variety of religious activities in pre-colonial Africa. These included burial rites purifications, rituals naming of ceremonies and prayers to bless soldiers before they went to war. Religious activities took place at different levels such as family level, clan level and community level e.g. The Bushmen of Congo held prayers before going to hunt as they believed that God was the source of all food. Among the Asante people of West Africa the king of Asante (Asantehene) based his right to office on the possession of the Royal or Golden stool, Asantehene was regarded as the chief priest. Natural cults also existed in many parts of Africa. Their main aim was to please the spirits and legendary heroes e.g. the juju practiced in Western Africa the Shona held a cult called Mwani. The king of Shona (Mwanamtapa) was regarded as decline.

3. WARS

African communities engaged in war from time to time; they fought with various reasons such as to increase the number of the herds of livestock, to get fertile land for agriculture purposes and expansion of the kingdom e.g. Buganda conquered Buddu, Karagwe and Busoga to expand their kingdom by 1839. Egyptian army had established their base at Gondokora the area located around Southern Khartoum and by 1869, Egyptian had raided and destroyed the Lango and Ancholi religion in the modern day Uganda.

4. MUSIC AND DANCES

African music and dances brought people together; communities’ rites and ceremonies were accompanied by songs and dances. Every African society developed songs for work, Labourers sang while clearing fields, sowing and harvesting goods example of dances were Mdundiko among the Zaramo and Sindimba of Makonde. The Yomba of West Africa performed Orik music where by other songs praised or condemned certain characteristics including leadership and relation with neighbours. Dance were also performed for different purposes; some dance were open to everyone while others restricted to a certain secret society professional and artisans example Chagga men and women performed a dance called Rring during wedding ceremonies and Luguru led their dance called Gubi.

5. MEDICINE

African’s had medicine men and women who played important role both spiritually and medically. Those who practice medicine interacted with many members of the society as patient visited some of the well known medicine men and women. Some medicine men and women were also political advisors and leaders example Kinjekitile Ngwale of Southern Tanzania most of the medicine were extracted from plant roots, barks and leaves e.g. The (neem tree) Mwarobaini is mostly used by various medicine in Matebele.

6. MARRIAGE

Marriage occupies a position of great importance in African communities. Every member of the society jugs to build their own family. In Buganda the Kabaka married from different clans in order to enhance political unity in the kingdom. Therefore social interactions strengthened through marriage. At the same time marriage led to emergence of new culture examples Swahili culture as the result of mixture of Bantu and Arab culture.

B) ECONOMIC INTERACTION

Africa communities also interacted due to economic factors such as crafts, trade, farming and pastoralism.

1) METAL WORKING

African communities used various kinds of metal to make tools, weapons, utensil and ornaments; some of the widely used metals were iron, Bronze, Gold, Copper and tin. Archaeologists have discovered the remains of early in working beneath important religious shrine in the Great lakes religion dating back over 2,000 years ago.

Egyptians were the first people known to have used copper; Benin the Bronze casters had guild called Igun Eronwon through making various metal tools people interacted due to the need of the commodities through interactions.

2) AGRICULTURE:

Many Africans communities practiced agriculture and different types of interaction took place in the process. Apart from few communities such as the pastoral Maasai who never tilled land; other communities cultivated a variety of crops by using different farming methods, tools and crops were passed from one community to another. The Kwari who were purely pastoral community eventually became cultivators as the results they interacted with agricultural societies.

3) FISHING

Was an economic activity that was practiced by communities that lived near water bodies such as lakes, rivers and the seas. The Luo were and still are named fishermen in Pre-colonial East Africa the Ndengereko's fished in the river Rufiji while the Zaramo and other coastal people in the Indian Ocean, such fishing communities interacted with pastoral and agriculturalist so as to acquire animal product and agricultural commodities.

4) TRADE

Trade conducted in pre–colonial period was in barter system, the trade network was based on the need to access what a community didn’t produce; Example pastoralists exchanged their animals’ products for vegetable and grains. The limbo clans among the Luo specialized in occupation such as iron working and pottery. Between 8 th – 16 th C. AD community from the Sudanic belt engaged in trade with the communities from north Africa in the Trans – Sahara trade. Among the most important commodities of exchange were iron, gold, slaves and salts.

5) THE NEED TO SEARCH NEW AREAS

Areas with fertile land and reliable rainfall were very attractive to the people within the regions or those coming from outside the regions. Agricultural societies kept on shifting from the area with infertile soil to areas with fertile soil; examples in the interlacustrine regions were densely populated compared to areas like Central Tanzania and Northern part of Kenya where population was low.

IMPACTS /RESULTS /EFFECTS/CONSEQUENCES/ OUTCOMES OF THE INTERACTIONS.

A: SOCIAL IMPACTS OF INTERACTIONS AMONG THE PEOPLE OF AFRICA.

1. Loss of originality: in the process of migrations and trade interactions people moved from one place of their origin to various destinations, through this interactions probably there was interactions of new values, customs and beliefs.

2. Emergence of new language. As people of different languages like Bantu, Nilotes and Khoisan meet with other groups; they developed new languages which were based on those new related groups of Swahili language developed in East Africa having most of the Bantu vocabularies.

3. Inter marriage. When people moved from their original areas and established settlement in new areas they got married with the natures and established new social relations. These involved social conflicts since people were united together.

4. Population increased. The places which were attractive for people’s settlements become highly populated. Those regions immigration was common than emigration.

B): THE IMPACTS OF ECONOMIC INTERACTIONS.

1. Growth of towns and cities. Trading activities stimulated the emergence of urban centers along the trade natures and centers. Areas that produced trade commodities in West, North and East Africa become remarkable urban center; example Taghaza, Timbuktu, Gao, Kumbisaleh in West Africa, Alex and Rial in Tripoli and Cairo in north Africa, Malindi, Mombasa. Bagamoyo, Zanzibar, Tabora and Ujiji in East Africa.

2. Exposure of Africa to the external world. The African coast and interior areas were invalided to the outside world. People were engaged in trading activities and slowly they created trading contacts with the Europeans. African was producing goods that were observed by the outside world.

3. Intensification of agricultural production. Due to good manufacturing and use of better tools and high demands of food stuffs; cash crops and animals products became very important among Africans.

4. Development of technical skills and new areas. Trading activities stimulated the emergency and growth of technical skills. Africans were able to process gold, iron smelting and cloth making.

5. Over exploitation of African resources. Trade items such as ivory, gold, copper and animals skins, supplied within African and later to outside world. Later on those resources were highly demanded by the outside world like Asia and Europe. Therefore traders take them to outside world of large quantities.

6. The decrease of manpower. Many people in the Western Sudan and East Africa interior were captured as slaves to meet the high demands of slaves by long distance and Trans-Saharan trade.

7. Emergence of classes: The interactions of people on Africa resulted into classes of rich and poor; those who engaged in trade and agricultural activities became economically powerful than those who did not engage in these activities.

  THE COMING OF THE NGONI

Ngoni people originated in Kwazulu land and Natal region in the sent by the public of South Africa. Ngoni are the one who speak Nguni language in the 19 th century; Zulu kingdom got new king called Tshaka. Tshaka through frequent war campaigns succeeded to expand his empire. The tribe defeated by Tshaka was recruited into his military service. Through this contradiction many other tribes fled northward to Mozambique, South Africa, Tanzania, Malawi and Zambia. Due to contradictions and political ambition Tshaka was assassinated by his brother Dingane 1828.      

CAUSES OF THE NGONI MIGRATIONS.

1. The mfecane war. This was the period of political instability and upheavals in South Africa which led to the creation of political alliances among the displaced communities. It covered the period 1820 – 1834 which referred as war of crushing the people. The war was narrated by the Ngoni as Ufuaru which meant the crushing and it was named as Difaune. As a result of this contradiction wide warrior divided into two groups one was Under shoshangane created Gaza Empire in Mozambique and Zwangendaba migrated northern wards through central Africa into present day Tanzania.

- One group under Mputa Maseko crossed Zambezi River and passed to Eastern side of Lake Malawi (Nyasa) finally settled in present day Songea district.

- Zwangedaba lead another groups reached and settled in Ufipa, and in the areas of Lake Nyasa in 1840.Hence Zwangedaba died in 1845.

- The Ndebele under mzirikazi found their settlement in present day Zimbabwe.

- The Kololo under Swebatwane migrated north and built Lozi kingdom a centralized state.

- The Ngoni people were predominantly agriculturalists and pastoralists; in order to protect their traditional way of life they decided to move northwards to central and Eastern Africa.

2. Boer expansion. Since the Ngoni’s economy depend much on land they wanted to expand southwards but due to presence of Boers it become difficult to them as they could not extend to west because Kens rub mountain or to East because of Indian Ocean hence they involved north wards.

3. The Ngoni migrated due to the tyrannical and dictatorial rule of Shaka: The Zulu ruler was cruel in nature as he severely tortured people and those who failed to respond to his order were killed. Due to this some people decided to seek refuge by migrating to other areas. 

4. It was due to overpopulation: Thiswas caused by the fertility of soils and the reliability of rainfall between Drakensberg Mountains and the Indian Ocean. 

5. Pastoralism reason: Some Ngoni people owned large herds of cattle and northwards looking for pasture and water for their animals. So they wanted to look for more fertile land for their cattle. They also experienced famine and drought that led to lack of food and water. 

5. The influence of their leaders: Men like Zwangendaba, Maputo and Zulugama provided good leadership. This encouraged them to move onwards. 

6. Overstocking: It could also have been due to overstocking of their animals as they were having spirit of cattle rustling, i.e. they had great desire to steal other people’s cattle. For example they went on driving away and confiscating other people’s cattle during their conquest and expansionist wars. 

7. Increased knowledge of military tactics by the age regiments:These were powerful military forces and dedicated to professional war, which was their livelihood. They believed that they could have other territories through migration.

Effects of Ngoni invasion or migration in East Africa

Positive effects

• The Ngoni invasion led to the rise on outstanding leaders to prominence. These included Mirambo, Nyungu ya Mawe and Mkwawa, who used the Ngoni military tactics to build their states.
• Many small Ntemi chiefdoms came together (united) and formed large political units under strong leaders to fight the Ngoni for example Sangu and Hehe (re-organisation).
• There was formation of new societies/tribe like the Mbunga.
• The Hehe under Mkwawa were able to resist the Germans.
• There was spread of Ngoni customs and culture for example initiation ceremonies where girls were taught sex educations and circumcision.
• It led to formation of a large Ngoni society in East Africa as they absorbed many people.
• It led to the ormation of some societies by those who used Ngoni tactics for example Nyamwezi under Mirambo.
• It led to the introduction of new weapons eg. assegai, cowhides and shields.
• From the Ngoni invasion people learned how to become organised from smaller disorganised society, to well organised bigger political systems. These were to be under the control and leadership of organised, strong and efficient rulers such as the Sangu chief, Hehe etc.
• There were intermarriages between Ngoni and Nyamwezi which subsequently led to improved relationships between the invaders and indigenous people and an increased population.

Negative effects

• They caused the loss of lives leading to depopulation in some areas where they got warriors this was especially in southern Tanzania. This was due to the killing of people in the expansionist wars e.g. the Mariti remnants of Rugarugas killed so many people.
• They introduced military organisation and tactics to such an extent that the Ngoni lost their superiority. e.g Holoholo were able to defeat the Tuta Ngoni when they re attacked them.
• Their movement led to wider spread of devastation, depopulation and displacement of people.
• They destroyed the economy of the people of southern Tanzania when they grabbed their cattle (the Ngoni were cattle plunderers). The Ngoni invasion led to poverty, i.e. it led to the creation of the class of poor people as their property continued to be destroyed and persistently looted during the wars.
• The Ngoni led to formation of refugees who lived by plundering and killing i.e. the Mariti and Rugaruga who were later used by ambitious men like Mirambo and Nyungu ya Mawe to form their empires.
• The Tuta Ngoni on their movement northwards, disrupted the trade particularly between Tabora and Ujiji.
• There was loss of peoples’ language, culture and customs (detribalisation of people), i.e. the raids caused many people to become homeless and tribe less. This led to people losing their identity. In addition, such groups became terrorists who lived by war, plunder and hunting for ivory. They included the “Rugaruga” who began hiring their services as mercenaries to any chief willing to pay them.
• Ngoni disturbances disrupted normal cultivation leading to famine. There was widespread famine due to the scotched-earth policy of fighting circumstances, crop could neither be planted nor harvested, and people were forced to abandon farming.
• They led to insecurity since the new weapons and military tactics increased warfare and aggression in East Africa.
• The Ngoni intensified slave trade in East Africa, this was because they displaced people from their homes and so making it easy for slave raiders to catch and sell them.
• It led to increased warfare among the African societies, including those areas that had been peaceful before.

TOPIC 2: SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND PRODUCTION IN PRE-COLONIAL AFRICA

 

Social organization: 
Refers to the mode of production existing in a particular place at particular time. Modes of production involve productive forces that are human labour, instrument of labour, economic activities and objects of labour and production.

Modes of production:
 Is the relationship between production and productive forces include the following; human labour, surplus production, instrument of labour, objective of labour and population.

Human labor: 
Is the consciousness and purposeful activity of people to produce material wealth.

Production: 
Is a major in the series of economic processes that brings goods and services to people. It includes creation, distribution and consumption.

Means of labour:
 Are the things used in production such as hoes, machines, roads, buildings etc.

Objective of labour: 
Are things upon which man’s labour is applied (mostly land).

Productive forces: 
These are means of production created by a society especially objects and instrument of labour.

Relation of production:
 Are simple and direct relations which people enter to one another in actual production process either exploitive or exploited class.

Class struggle: 
Are conflicts that developed between exploitative mode and non –exploitative modes example capitalism and socialism.

TYPES OF SOCIAL ORGANISATION PRODUCTION

A:  COMMUNAL ISM MODE OF PRODUCTION

This was the first mode of production to exist in pre colonial African societies and is divided into two namely:

1. Primitive communalism The first mode of production through which all societies passed was primitive communal ism. It is called "primitive‟ because of the low level of productive forces and "communalism‟ because there was no exploitation of man by man. This mode of production existed for much longer period than any other mode as it ranged from the emergence of man more than one million years ago.
2. Advanced communalism During that era man advanced in his tools through various discoveries like iron tools. It is because of this technological advancement that is why it came to be known as advancement communalism The nonproductive members of the society such as the elders, disabled and children were exempted from work due to their disabilities. The invention of agricultural tools encouraged man to cultivate bigger plots of land. Rapid increases in population also encouraged people to increase their farms so as to get more food which could feed the growing population.

Some of African societies in the present days are still practicing communal mode of production. These include;

The Tindiga and Hadzabe of Singida and Lake Manyara and Central Tanzania.

The Dorobo (Okiek) of Maumau forest and Tesoin Uganda.

The Mbali found in the equatorial rain forest of the Congo DRC.

The bushman (san) of South Africa.

The KhoiKhoi of Kalahari desert of Botswana

The Tur of Ghana.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMUNAL ISM

1. Absence of exploitation.

There was no exploitation among the people in a community. All the able bodied members of the society worked hard and shared what they produced.

2. Low level of production.

The level of productive forces were low hence none or very little surplus was produced. The implements used in food procurement were crude and simple.

3. Dependence on nature.

In communalism life was entirely dependent on nature therefore the environment dictated how man lived.

4. Communal ownership.

The communal ownership of properties was a major characteristic of communalism. The major means of production like land, tools and minerals were owned by the community.

5. Hunting and gathering.

This was the main occupation in these communities; people were grouped together in collective groups known as hunting bands to facilitate this means of production. This later led to the development of stock raising and agriculture then it brought the division of labor.

6. Subsistence economy.

Due to low level of development of science and technology people produced enough food for their consumption.

7. Lack of specialization.

Because of limitation of their science and technology (knowledge) these people learnt to perform all types of jobs. They worked together in marking roots, hunting and looking for food later on very simples division of labor based on gender occurred.

8. People in communal society treated each other equally. There was no standing armies and ruling classes; even elders were not lords or rulers.

9. Learning by doing: people in communal societies shared knowledge. This was acquired through learning by doing, youth and children obtained knowledge and skills from their elders.

FACTORS FOR TRANSITION FROM PRIMITIVE COMMUNAL ISM TO SLAVERY AND FEUDAL MODE OF PRODUCTION.

1. Neolithic revolution: Is the term for the first agricultural change describing the transition from nomadic, hunting and gathering to permanent settlement. Neolithic revolution brought socioeconomic changes such as establishment of permanent settlement, extension of division of labor based on age and sex, emergence of specialization, surplus production and spread of diseases due to permanent settlement.

2. Advanced in science and technology. This was the turning point that gave improvement in agricultural production. The tools produced were sharper and stronger than the older ones. The improvement of tools led to the expansion of socioeconomic activities above and beyond hunting and gathering.

3. The reliable rainfall and fertile land. Allowed the expansion of agriculture especially the cultivation of permanent crops such as banana in Uganda.

4. Population growth by either natural increase through giving birth or artificial means through immigration which was associated with transformation of the social organization and forming of strong empire.

B) SLAVERY MODE OF PRODUCTION.

Slavery refers to a situation in a society where a person is owned by another purposely as an instrument of production. Slavery mode of production was the second mode of production and the first exploitative mode of man by man. The emergence of surplus production created two different classes these were the rich and the poor. Under slavery systems slaves could not acquire wealthy and could not cultivate own land.

Slavery in Africa existed in;

Egypt where they constructed dams and pyramids.

Chagga, Haya, Ganda, Hehe. Kerewe and Sambaa in East Africa interior.

Along the coast of East Africa slaves were used in carrying loads buildings, cities, constructing dams and irrigation scheme. Slavery in Africa never existed as an institution except in Egypt Muslim communities and on the coast of East Africa.

FEATURES OF SLAVE MODE OF PRODUCTION

1. Existence of two classes that is the slave masters who were exploiters and the slaves who were exploited group.

2. Private ownership of the major means of production. The slave masters owned slaves, cattle and all implements of production.

3. Low productive force under the slave mode of production, the productive forces were still low though more advanced compared to those used during communalism.

4. Existence of surplus production. There were extra products due to the use of advanced tools and improved skills of man to control his environment. The slave masters owned surplus production produced by slaves.

5. Existence of political institutions; these began to emerge and existed in various areas example slave masters had state apparatus such as army, prisons and police which were employed in exploiting and suppressing slaves.

6. Class struggle existed between slaves and slave masters; the slaves started to resist in form of strikes, rebellions, idling and running away.

C. FEUDAL MODE OF PRODUCTION (FEUDALISM).

The term feudalism originated from the Germany word “feud” which means fees. In this context fees refer to payment of tax.

Feudalism; was the third mode of production and second pre-capitalist mode of production based on exploitation of man by man. The economy of feudal society was based on private ownership and renting of land and livestock by the ruling classes.

CHARACTERISTICS OF FEUDALISM
1. Agriculture became the major economic activity: Following the discovery of iron technology productive forces were improved drastically.

2. Payment of rent to the land lords; rent was paid in various forms.

Labour rent; existed in form of labour or service in which peasants (serf) were required to work for three days in week for the land lords.

Rent in kind: The serfs regularly had to deliver the quantities of his products to the land lords. The products could be in form of grain, cattle or vegetables.

Money rent: Was the system in which money used as a major means of paying rent.

3. Exploitation of man by man example peasants (serf) were exploited by land lords and the distribution of production was not equal. 
4. Little freedom to peasant; peasants were tired due to various restrictions as they were treated as children. 
5. Private ownership of major means of production such as land, mining sites, houses and cattle all these belonged to feudal lords. 
6. Division labour This based on age and sex where men specialized in military while women specialized in farming and taking care of children. 
7. Existence of classes; landlords as exploiters and serfs as exploited class.

8. Little surplus enjoyed by feudal lords.

9. Existence of strong political institutions in form of kingdoms and empires example Bunyoro, Buganda and Karagwe. Feudalism in Africa existed in various forms. Its nature depended on place in which it was practiced for instance societies that exercised feudalism were those found in the interlacustine region of East Africa, South Africa, West Africa and the North Eastern Africa.

10. Improved productive forces:Especially tools applied in agriculture and military warfare, this was brought about by iron technology. Generally, African kingdoms such as Buganda and some forest states of West Africa, used means of production centered around either land or livestock-especially cattle-peasants could use the land freely but they were required to pay rent.

FEUDAL RELATIONS/FORMS OF FEUDALISM

1. Nyarubanja system. In this form of feudalism the major means of production was land. Under Nyarubanja system in Buhaya and Karagwe there was two classes, that is the Batwazi (ruler) and Batwana (serfs). These two classes had to pay rent in kind and rent in labour services to the land lords.

In Buganda Nyarubanja system known as Mvunjo and Busulo, there were two classes that is Bataka (chiefs) and the poor people who rendered labour service and paid of their products to the land lords known as Bakopi. Under the system labour services provider was known as Akasamvu and part of their products was provided to the ruling class known as Obusulu. Bunyoro was the kingdom practiced feudalism in East Africa. The kingdom was divided into provinces known as Saza’s under chiefs. Also there was caste system in East Africa under this feudal system there was two classes which were Bahima (pastoralists) and Bairu (agriculturalists). Bahima who were pastoralists dominated and employed the Bairu who were agriculturalists. It was common in Rwanda, Burundi and Buhaya.

2. Umwinyi system was another form of feudalism found along the coast of East Africa. Wamwinyi controlled the productive forces such as land, serfs and tenants; also monopolized the political and economic power. The serfs and tenants were given land by Wamwinyi (feudal lords) to live on them in return of labour services and tributes which were paid to Wamwinyi. Before Arabs colonization The Mwinyi mkuu was the greatest land lords and ruled Zanzibar with the help of Shehe in Unguja and Diwani in Pemba.

3. Ubugabire system was another form of feudalism practiced among the Tutsi and Hutu in Rwanda and Burundi. The Tutsi (donor) also known as SEBUJA could transfer their cattle to the Ifutu (recipient) as sometimes known as BUGABIRE. The Omugabire and his family were obliged to perform several duties for the masters including house building cultivating.

4. Ntemi system: This was practiced among the Nyamwezi and Sukuma. The power of ruler was based on the control of land The Mtemi organized his people to open up new land wherever it was available. The process of opening up new land was known as Kutema.

MERITS OF FEUDALISM

The following are some of merits of feudalism;

1) The weaker people in the society were protected by the king or the rich land owners. For example, among the Rwandans, the Tutsi had an obligation to protect their tenants, the Hutu.

2) The land owners gave all poor people in the society a piece of land to cultivate. This way, everyone had a means of earning a living.

3) There was a piece in the state as the rich classes maintained law and order.

4) The rich supported the poor with food during drought and famine.

5) The society were highly stratified, with each class of people knowing their position and role. In this way, the feudal societies were very organized.

DEMERITS OF FEUDALISM

1) The rich exploited labour force of the poor.

2) Only a few people in society owned land.

3) There was inequality in society between the rich and the poor.

4) The peasant were forced to undertake military duties and endanger their lives for their landlords.

5) It encouraged inter-community warfare as landlords fought in order to increase their land and vassals. 

Basic assignment

1. Explain the term social organisation and production
2. Identify the types of social organizations and production that existed in Africa up to the19th century
3. What is communalism mode of production?
4. Identify the characteristics of communalism
5. Show examples of the societies that had communalism up to the 19th century
6. What is slavery and slave mode of production?
7. Explain the features of slavery in Africa
8. Show areas where slavery was practiced in Africa
9. What is feudalism as mode of production?
10. Explain the characteristics of feudalism
11. Show societies in east Africa that had feudalism up to the 19th century 
12.  Explain the feudal relation (forms of feudalism) that existed in the following areas.i) Interlacustrine region of Lake Victoriaii) Indian Ocean coast of East Africa

TOPIC 3: AFRICA AND EXTERNAL WORLD.

The Africa contact with Middle East and Far East dated back early in 200BC. The early contacts were initially at the coast but later some of the foreigners moved further into interior of the East Africa. Those early foreigners visited Africa were people from Asia including; Lebanese, Syrians, Indonesians, Persians, Arabs and China. Later people from Europe began to visit Africa, these included; Portuguese, British, Dutch and French. The trade contact between the pre-colonial African societies, Middle East and Far East began around 8^th century AD. These early contacts were determined by nature of African and Asian societies.

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL MOTIVES/AIMS OF THE CONTACTS BETWEEN AFRICA, MIDDLE AND FAR EAST.

Trade activities. Traders wanted to trade and control commercial activities along the African coast as Africa coastal environment attracted and favored trade activities of India Ocean in 7th and 8^th centuries, there were regular trading between Africa, China, Indonesia, Persia, and Arabs states.

The South west monsoon winds would blow the ships to the African coast between November and April; whereas the north East monsoon winds between May and October would take them back to their countries

GOODS EXCHANGED BETWEEN AFRICA, MIDDLE AND FAR EAST.

Origin of visitors Goods brought to Africa Goods taken from Africa

Arabia Beakers, iron, pains, swords, daggers, beads, ornaments and rice

Ivory

Gold

Slaves

Tortoise shells

Rhinoceros horns

Animal skins

Copper

Iron

Ostrich feather. etc.

China Porcelain, bowls, Plates and Shuck clothes.

Persia Ports, glass bowls, beakers, swords and ornaments

India Cotton cloth, metal, ornaments, beads and spears. Spice island spices

Syrian Iron pans, bowls swords and beakers

1. Exploration of African coast.

The visitors from Middle East and Far East were interested to know the accessibility of the coast and the availability of market in the coastal areas. They were also interested to assess the volume of commodities which were in great demands such as gold, slave and animal skins.

The exploration done in Africa was recorded in the early records about the coast; it was recorded by one of the Greek sailor book called Periplus of Eritrean Sea and Ptolemy’s Geography.

2. The need to search new trading settlements.

Early visitors come to Africa with the aim of establishing trading settlements along the East African Coast and the horn of Africa. During the 10 th and 11 th centuries several Muslims merchants of Arabs in Origin; began to penetrate the Awash valley towards the high land of Ethiopia.

3. The need to spread Islamic religion

Some visitors come to spread Islamic religion. The Islamic religion started to spread in western Asia from 7 th century mainly through holy wars known as JIHADS which aimed at spreading the Islamic religion. Therefore Muslims Arabs from middle and Far East visited African coast with the aim of spreading Islamic religion to the African people

EFFECTS OF EARLY TRADING CONTACT

A. ECONOMIC EFFECTS

1. Emergence of rich class.

Since African people engaged in trade activities and acquired enough profit; a class of rich merchants emerged among them. In East Africa the class of rich people included chief Kivoi of Kamba and Nganyo of Giriama in Kenya, Mirambo and Nyungu ya mawe of Nyamwezi in Tanzania.

2. Exposed Africa towards economies.

Africa was integrated in the world economy through supplying commodities which were in great demands by the outside world.

3. Exploitation of Africa resources.

The contact involved the exploitation of human resources by taking Africans away as slaves and some commodities such as Ivory, Gold and animals skins were taken away.

4. Decline of local industries.

The consumers' behaviour changed from buying local mode commodities to buy foreign commodities such as cotton clothes and food utensils.

5. Loss of manpower.

Example; slave trade in Africa decreased the manpower because traders captured the able bodied people who were essential for production; the aged, weak and children were left behind while they could not manage to produce at large quantity.

6. Introduction of new crops.

These crops were very useful to African because they provided food stuffs as well as cash crops such as coconut, palms, rice, millet, wheat, cloves, sugarcane etc.

7. Introduction of money economy.

In East Africa coastal cities coins were minted and used as the medium of exchange therefore the use of currency replaced barter trade system.

8. Introduction of new arts and crafts.

By 15^th century various items were produced in Africa and village communities were transforming from simple to complex societies. Many towns developed due to arts and crafts; the art of writing navigation and money handling was also introduced.

B. SOCIAL EFFECTS

1. Emergence of Swahili language and culture.

2. Rise and growth of Islamic culture.

3. Spread of Islamic religion (Qur’an and Islamic laws).

4. Growth of towns and cities such as Mombasa, Kilwa, Pemba, Sofala and Mogadishu.

5. Emergence of mullatos due to intermarriage.

6. Rise of warfare and depopulation due to capturing of slaves. 

THE CONTACT BETWEEN AFRICA AND EUROPE

The Portuguese  invasion.

Trading between Africa and Asia was disturbed by Portuguese invasion along the East Africa coast in the 16th C.

The Portuguese attempted to capture and control Indian Ocean trade, this lead to war between the Portuguese on one hand and the indigenous of East African coast. During this contact the most important countries in western were Spain and Portugal. These countries were included in trade through trading routes to India which passed off through Italy and the Muslims lands of the Middle East. The occurrence of wars in Muslims empire made the trade difficult and more expensive.

The Portuguese by finding routes of the sea wanted to establish trading empire in the East by controlling all trades in Europe. This was made possible by the invention of ships.

Prince Henry the navigator son of King John of Portuguese supported the voyages. They searched routes as resulted into voyages by Bartholomew Diaz in 1487 and Vasco da Gama in 1498.

Vasco da Gama was the first Portuguese to reach East Africa.

In summary;

Vasco da Gama reached Africa in 1498 (A.D).

Bartholomew Diaz reached Africa in 1487.

ECONOMIC MOTIVES/AIMS OF THE CONTACT BETWEEN AFRICA AND THE PORTUGUESE.

1. The need to defeat the Asian trades and rules in their monopoly of the India trade; as usually European countries admired the commodities founded in Africa, so in order to get them they had to contact with African people.

The commodities needed by them were Ivory, tortoise’s shells, cotton, gold and palms.

2. Controlling and Exploitation of Gold.

3. Need of creating Portuguese Empire in Africa so as to make Africa to be a producer.

4. To exploit different resources of Africa. Example gold, diamond.

5. They wanted to exploit African resources by selling small things to Africans for high price more than they had sold it to them.

SOCIAL MOTIVES/AIMS

1. To spread Christianity.

2. To exploit Africa especially East African coastal cities and states e.g. Kilwa, Mombasa, Bagamoyo and Mogadishu.

3. They desired to establish anti-Muslims alliances.

4. They search for Pastor John in Ethiopia.

THE PORTUGUESE EXPLOITATION RESULTED INTO DISCOVERIES OF POTENTIAL AREAS.

The Portuguese established trade with societies found in the coastal areas. They also created central point where ships could stop on the way to India. After establishing trade the Portuguese obtained items such as ivory, gold, copper and silver; they exchange them with cloth, guns, gunpowder etc.

By 15th C Portuguese succeeded to establish their rule in East Africa. After that the Portuguese built the Fort Jesus in Mombasa which could strengthen their military power thus establishing the effective control over the East Africa coastal areas.

1592 was the built of Fort Jesus.

1698 was the broke down of Fort Jesus.

1499 was the year when Vasco da Gama returned back to Portugal.

RESISTANCES AGAINST PORTUGUESE.

There were source of resistance;

1) The displaced people joined the resistance, for example Zimba of Zambezi valley and Segeju of Somalia in the Northern Eastern Africa. The constant attack and resistance against Portuguese rule lead to its decline and capture of Fort Jesus of Mombasa in 1698.

2) The reaction from the feudal lords and traders who counted to protect their social and economic interests.

THE ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF PORTUGUESE.

 a) Introduction of crops especially cash crops in Africa e.g. Sugarcane, yellow maize, cassava, rice, pineapples, potatoes etc.

b) Decline of trade; the trade between East Africa, Far East and Middle East was interrupted by the Portuguese.

c) Change of major trade routes.

d) Exposed Africa to the external world.

e) They built several forts, example; Fort Jesus.

f) They acted as the introducers of new arts to the indigenous of Africa continent.

The forts built by Portuguese were like;

Fort Jesus in 1592 in Mombasa.

Fort at Kilwa.

Sofala and eliminated caste present day Ghana built in 1482.

SOCIAL IMPACTS OF PORTUGUESE

1. Decline of cities and states.

2) Growth of Swahili language.

3) Insecurity and loss of manpower.

Also Swahili adapted some new Portuguese words i.e. Mvinyo from word Vincho, Meza Etc.

THE REASONS FOR THE COLLAPSE OF PORTUGUESE

1) They suffered from tropical disease like malaria.

2) The climate conditions of East African coast were in healthy for the Portuguese.

3) Social, culture and religion differences i.e. Muslim against Christians.

4) Loss of trade due to Portuguese taxes and restrictions.

5) Harsh treatments and punishment practiced by Portuguese in their leadership.

6) Role played by Oman to the coastal city people. Hence that capture of fort Jesus marked the end of Portuguese in East Africa around 1700.

THE DUTCH SETTLEMENT AT THE CAPE

The Dutch or Boers came from Holland (Nether land) and firstly settled at the cape in Table Bay in April 1652 under the leadership of Jan Van Riebeek.

Dutch farmers called themselves - “BOERS”

When they settled at the cape they called themselves by the name of Afrikaners that meant the “whites of Africa” who developed language known as Afrikaans.

Dutch had a company known as United Dutch East India company (UDEIC).

The company had trade with India and other Arabs in Asia

At the cape they grew vegetables, fruits and kept animals such as cattle.

They had barter trade with Khoikhoi exchanging tobacco and alcohol for the cattle.

Reasons for Dutch settlement at the cape

1. The cape was a good place where ships could stop to be refueled.

2. The cape had a good climate to support settlement of the whites. (Temperate and cool climate).

3. The Dutch wanted to produce vegetable and fruits for the ships which sailed to India.

4. The cape could provide fresh water for the sailors.

5. The cape could be a base of projecting their ships on Atlantic and Indian Ocean.

6. A center for caring sick people.

THE EFFECTS/IMPACTS OF THE DUTCH SETTLEMENT AT THE CAPE

1. They took land from Khoikhoi and Xhosa.

2. They turned the Khoikhoi into slaves to work for them in farms.

3. Dutch raided cattle from the Khoikhoi.

4. Dutch settlement led to the introduction of apartheid e.g. Khoikhoi could not get quality education, health services and shelters like the Dutch.

5. Unequal exchange led to exploitation of South African resources.

6. Intermarriage which led to Mullato population.

7. Political structure of the Khoikhoi was destroyed.

THE MAP SHOW EXPANSION OF DUTCH SETTLEMENT AT THE CAPE

THE BRITISH

The British first occupation of South Africa was in 1795 when they attacked and defeated the Boers at the Cape.

There was a peace treaty between the Dutch and the British in 1802 and the Cape was given back to the Dutch in 1803. But in 1806 the British decided to re-occupy the Cape by defeating the Dutch.

The areas which made the British settle at the Cape were;

1. They wanted to protect their ships on the sea route to India.

2. It was based on protectionism which the British could protect themselves against ships of enemies.

3. Area to get raw materials, market and area for investment.

4. They wanted to control the trade route on sea water (India & Asia)

5. Cape could easy link the British and Western Europe across the Atlantic Ocean.

Effects of the British administration at the cape.

1. They abolished slavery introduced by Boers.

2. They imposed English language as the official medium of communication.

3. Khoikhoi continued to lose their land as the British took it for their settlements.

4. There was important of manufactured goods from Europe.

5. They imposed news way of life.

6. Introduction of circuit courts in order to settle disputes between Dutch and the Khoikhoi.

African resistance against the settlement and expansion of the Boers and the British on South Africa.

The African resistance against the whites began during the 17 th Century up to the 20 th century.

Examples of resistances were: -

THE KAFFIR WARS OR WARS OF DISPOSSESSION.

1. These were series of wars carried out by the Xhosa from 1779 Vs Boers – at the great fish river.

The first three wars were in 1779, 1789 and 1803.

The fourth (known as Ndhalambi) happened in 1812

The fifth (known as Makanda) in 1819.

The sixth in 1834.

The seventh in 1846>

The 8 th (Malenjin – 1850 –1853)

The last resistance by the Xhosa (Mlakaza was an advisor to one of the Xhosa).

1. The Battle of Vegkop of 19 th October 1836.

Ndebele under Mzilikazi fought Vs the Boers in the Orange Free states.

1. The Battle of the Blood River on 1th February, 1837.

ZULU UNDER Dingane fought against Boer settlement in natal.

1. Anglo Zulu war.

Zulu under Cetshowayo fought strongly and defeated the British at the Battle of Island lwana.

But later the British suppressed the Zulu during the battle of Ulundi 4 th July, 1879.

EAST AFRICA UNDER OMAN’S RULE 1840.

The Oman Arabs helped East Africans to defeat Portuguese along the coastal in 1698. Oman now became rulers. Therefore people of East Africa were not free apart from defeating the Portuguese.

In 1741 Mombasa established her independence chief domain under Mazmi family; this was an order from Arabs family of Oman in origin the Mazmi family was conquered by Sultan Seyyid Said of Oman. From 1840 onwards; Sultan Seyyid Said becomes the master of the East African coast.

MOTIVES/AIMS OF OMAN ARABS IN EAST AFRICA.

1) To have clear control/monopoly of trade existed at the coast especially Indian ocean trade.

2) They wanted to control all the city states along the coast.

3) To stop the spread of Christianity led by Portuguese and maintaining Islamic culture.

WHY SULTAN SEYYID SAID SHIFTED HIS CAPITAL FROM MUSCAT OMAN TO ZANZIBAR

The following were the factors for sultan Seyyid Said to shift his capital from Muscat Oman to Zanzibar in 1840.

1) Good climatic condition supported the settlement of Arabs.

2) Fertile soil for agricultural purpose especially clove and coconut products.

3) Deep natural harbour in Zanzibar for importation and exportation of goods.

4) Trade activities examples controlling the Indian Ocean trade.

5) Abundant fresh water for irrigation and soiling.

6) To avoid conflict in his home after killing his brother Iman said.

IMPACTS OF OMAN ARABS (SULTAN) DOMINATION IN EAST AFRICA.

A: ECONOMIC IMPACTS.

1. Increase of slave trade.

2. Land alienation.

3. East African people were exposed to international trade.

4. The expansion of trade.

5. Introduction of new cash crops example; coconut and cloves.

6. Establishment of feudalism where African become serfs and tenants

7. Exploitation of African resources.

B: SOCIAL IMPACTS.

1. Death due to resistance against the Arabs

2. Spread of Swahili language.

3. Addition of Arabic words into Swahili language.

4. Spread of Islamic religion.

5. Much suffering of people due to slavery activities.

THE HISTORY OF SOUTH AFRICA

Early inhabits of South Africa;

The Bushmen and Hottentots were the earliest inhabitants of South Africa.

The few scattered KhoiKhoi pastoralist and the San hunters were referred as Hottentots.

They formed Khoisan as they both spoke languages which contain clicking sounds.

Bushmen are short and have yellow or brown skin colour.

Bushmen are probably the descendants of the Stone Age men.

The Hottentots were similar to the Bushmen but taller and more advanced.

Production unit of Bushmen was based on hunting animals. The San depended on the KhoiKhoi for the cereal they exchange for meat.

-The Negroid Bantu began to arrive in South Africa from the 9 th century A.D. they were taller, strong and dark than Bushmen Hottentots.

-Bantu exercised arable farming, had iron working skills and cattle domestication.

-The Ngoni occupied Eastern Coastal region from Zulu and to the cape colony.

Bantu groups included the Zulu, Ndebele, Swazi, Ngoni, Tambu and Xhosa communities. They cultivated variety of crops such as sugarcane, melons, maize and beans. The level of production they had reached enabled them to accumulate surplus and trade began to be conducted among them.

SLAVE TRADE IN INDIAN OCEAN SEA BOARD

Slave:

Is the person who is illegally owned and controlled by another person and is forced to work for them.

Slavery:

Is the act of owning and using slaves.

Slave trade: -

Is the activity of buying and selling human beings like other commodities.

The main results of African contact with external world through trade was the;

Rise of slave trade

Colonialism

Slave trade in East Africa began after the arrival of Portuguese in 15 th Century up to 1873 during the Sayyid Barghash treaty or free treaty.

REASONS FOR THE EXPANSION OF THE INDIAN OCEAN SLAVE TRADE

 1. The Oman Arabs who were ruling the East African coast at the time introduced clove plantations in Zanzibar and Pemba. These plantations required large numbers of labors to tend to them.

2. There was also a high demand for slave labor for the French sugar plantations in Mauritius and Reunion Island. Initially, the French mostly depended on the area around present-day Mozambique for slaves, but by the 1770s the demand exceeded supply. Hence, the French came further north, to East Africa, in search of slaves.

3. Slaves were needed as porters. They ferried goods such as ivory and gold from interior of Africa to the Coast. This was important for the ivory trade, especially to the American, Indian and British traders who took part in it.

4. Portuguese slave traders supplied slaves to the Portuguese coffee and sugar plantations in Brazil. In the first half of the 18th century, the Portuguese expanded their plantations. As a result, their sources of slaves in West Africa and Mozambique became inadequate, so they came to East Africa.

5. Slaves were in great demand as domestic workers and soldiers in the Muslims nation Arabia. The Quran forbids Muslims from enslaving other Muslims. Thus, the slaves had to come from non-Muslim regions such as the interior of East Africa. There were major slave markets in Zanzibar, Bagamoyo, Pemba, Kilwa, Mikindani and Mombasa.

EAST AFRICA SLAVE TRADE ROUTE

CHARACTERISTICS OF SLAVE TRADE.

There were the characteristics which prevailed during slave trade.

1. There were several human torture and transits.

2. Humiliation and dehumanization of the slaves.

3. Slave were chained and forced to carry heavy loads like salt, ivory and copper.

4. They were brutally whipped by their organizers.

5. They were blended like animals. Those who were unfit were killed or left to die on the way.

 HOW SLAVE TRADE EMERGED

The trade emerged up to its maximum stage after growth or demand of labors in big plantations opened by the capitalist. In the 2 nd half of 18 th century slave trade was boosted by the French demand of labors in the Mauritius and Re-union Islands; these were their colonials in which sugar plantations were established.

There were three stages in the development of slave trade in Indian ocean sea board.

1. The first stage was dominated by the Portuguese who were shipping slave from Mozambique to Brazil in 18 th century.

2. The second was dominated by the Dutch from Holland and French who had opened the coffee and sugar plantations in Mauritius and Re-union especially in 1770.

3. The third was due to the introduction of cloves plantations in Zanzibar in the early of 19 th century.

The great demand for cloves in the world market led to the expansion of cloves plantations which also increased the need for slaves.

Slaves were needed for domestic and agricultural works in the Arabs countries in Asia. Due to above reasons the slave traders opened up slave trading centers (stations) such as Tabora, Ujiji, Kotak.......

The expansion of slave trade led to the opening up of market for slave activities. These markets in East Africa included Zanzibar which was the biggest market; others were Kilwa, Bagamoyo, Mombasa and Pemba.

HOW SLAVE TRADE WERE ORGANIZED IN INDIAN OCEAN SEA BOARD.

The organization of slave trade in East Africa in 19 th century depended much on the factors which were:

Question of capital to buy Ivory and slaves. At the beginning the Indian merchants called “Banyans” based in Zanzibar supplied capital example cloth was used to buy Ivory and slaves.

Organization of caravans. The famous traders who organized caravans were Tippu tippu between the East coast and present day Congo Kinshasa, Mlozi in Belgian, Rumaliza in Ujiji Kigoma and Msiri in urea country present day Zambia.

The involvement of local rulers in the slave and ivory trade. Nyungu ya mawe, Isike and Mirambo among the Nyamwezi, Kabaka of Uganda, Mkwawa of wahehe, Machemba of Yao.

COMMODITIES EXCHANGED

From interior to the coast –Ivory and slaves, animal skins, minerals.

From the coast to the interior caravans brought clothes, salts wine, glass ware beads and ornaments.

HOW SLAVES WERE OBTAINED (TECHNIQUES USED TO OBTAIN SLAVES)

Slaves were obtained through various ways:

1. Through raiding village and capturing people.

2. Through selling prisoners of war obtained from local civil wars.

3. Through selling criminals.

4. Through selling of domestic slaves.

5. Through ways of laying and ambush.

6. Through use of trickery and false pretense.

IMPACTS OF SLAVE TRADE IN INDIAN OCEAN SEA BOARD.

SOCIAL EFFECTS

1. Depopulation; many people were taken to work as slaves and others died on the way.

2. Insecurity and fear among the people.

3. Development of inter-states war.

4. Human torture and suffering

5. Hunger due to lack of good in areas were slave trade operated.

ECONOMIC EFFECTS

1. Killing of economic activities. Agriculture, pastoralism and industries were killed due to lack of manpower.

2. Technology stagnation; no innovation was made as all able bodied people were taken as slaves only children and old ones were left behind.

3. Underdevelopment of East Africa; slave trade increased dependence on European capitalist countries. generally slave trade had negative effects in East Africa and it created many problems.

THE CARAVAN/ROUTES. 
There were three main caravan routes during East Africa slave trade.

THE TRIANGULAR SLAVE TRADE

The triangular trade (TATT) intercontinental trade; was the trading activities which was conducted by the Europeans in relation with the Africans and the Americans across the Atlantic Ocean from the 16 th to 18 th century.

The Trans – Atlantic triangular trade originated from the discovery made by Christopher Columbus who was born in 1451 Genoa, after the discovery of new world (American) in 1492.

The Portuguese were the first foreigners to capture slaves at the coast of West Africa. In 1441, Alitam Goncalvez a Portuguese captured a man and a woman and sent them as gifts to the King of Portugal (Prince Henry the Navigator before his death in 1440.)

COMMODITIES OF EXCHANGE

The major commodities of exchange in the triangular trade were;

AFRICA – Exported slaves, gold, ivories and animal skins.

AMERICA- exported sugar, cotton, Tobacco, Gold and Silver.

EUROPE – Supplied manufactured goods such as clothes, gun powder, glass were, sugar and tobacco.

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCED THE TRANS-ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE

1. The discovery of new world.

After discovery of the new world by Christopher Columbus in 1492 Britain colonized modern days united state of America (USA), the French occupied Canada, Portugal colonized Brazil and Spain colonized Latin America.

The Europeans found the natives (Red Indians) unfit for labor in the mines and plantations because they were weak and affected by small pocks and lived nomadic life.

2. Advancement in marine technology between 15 th and 17 th century. Europeans nations developed marine technology as they had ships which could carry bullay cargo for a long distance.

3. Trade in gold from West Africa slave labour was used to the East then it was sent overseas.

4. Settlement of Portuguese in Saotome and principal islands where they opened sugar plantations.

RESULTS OF TRANS – ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE

ECONOMIC RESULTS.

1. Decline of production; this led people not to engaged in production especially in agriculture and mining activities due to slave trade.

2. Decrease of manpower; most of energetic people were captured and taken as slaves.

3. Technological stagnation.

4. Introduction of new crops example bananas, beans, cassava, and maize.

5. Development of forts example Lagos, port novo and Dakar

6. Emergency of local wealth classes; African local rulers participated in slave trade they become rich example Asantehene of Asante.

7. Integration of Africa into the world capitalist economy hence led to colonization of African continent.

8. Introduction of legitimate trade after abolition of slave trade; this was trade in natural products example rubber, cotton, palm oil and grand nuts.

SOCIAL EFFECTS

1. Fear and insecurity.

2. Emergence of mullatos in West Africa.

3. Retardation of African culture.

4. Families were broken off.

5. They established artificial boundaries and treaties.

6. They opened up the interior of African where they search was around.

7. They facilitate destruction of African culture

ECONOMIC EFFECTS
1. Trade network between the traders of the east coast and the interior communities such as the Yao and Nyamwezi were disrupted by the Ngoni raids. Commodities could therefore not reach the communities that needed them.
2. The Ngoni warriors destroyed both human life and livestock. Thus, they made some communities such as Ndebele economically disadvantaged.
3. Due to insecurity, agricultural activities were disrupted. This caused food shortages.
 4. A lot of valuable time was wasted as young people prepared for war. There was therefore shortage of labor for economic activities such as agriculture, hunting and fishing.
5. New technological skills were introduced, especially in iron working as the long spears were replaced by short stabbing spears.

THE RISE OF MFECANE IN SOUTH AFRICA
Mfecane were wondering wars among the clans of the Ngoni speakers in Natal between the coast of Indian Ocean and the Drankers Burg Mountains of South Africa.
Sometimes Mfecane is referred as Difeqane or Mfetsane.
The famous Ngoni clan groups were;
1. Zulu clan under Senzangakara.
2. Mthethwa under Dingiswayo.
3. Ngwane under Sobhuza.
4. Ndwandwe under Zwide.

THE REASONS OF MFECANE WARS
1. Need for land - Zulu needed more land for farming and grazing. 2. Rise of Zulu – Shaka fights the other clans in order to expand his kingdom. 3. Population growth in Natal causes conflict. 4. Clans denied expanding boundaries in order to make a large territory. 5. Expansion of Boers from cape to Natal.

THE EFFECTS OF MFECANE
1. Depopulation in Natal because of death. 2. Empire building e.g. Ndebele Empire under Msilikazi in Zimbabwe, and Ngoni under Zwangedaba. 3. Mfecane caused insecurity because of fighting. 4. Mfecane helped the Boer to settle in large areas. 5. Caused destruction of properties, crops and buildings. 6. The rise of defensive kingdoms e.g. Basulo, Swazi and Bapendi. 

TOPIC 4: INDUSTRIAL CAPITALISM

TRANSITION TO INDUSTRIAL CAPITALISM

The transition to industrial capitalism began during the period of mercantile Capitalism when the European nations such as Spain, Holland, Portugal and Britain sold goods from local small industries to Africa and Asia. European merchants got enough capital for discovery of industries during the mid – 18th century.

Industrial capitalism firstly started in Britain in 1750.

There was different demands that made occurance of industrial capitalism, these were;

1. Areas to invest capital.  Due to unreliable markets and high concentration of capital in Europe, profit marginalization occurred. As a solution new areas for investment were needed among other areas, Africa provided the best areas for investment of such capital. In Africa the tropical crops could do better compared to other countries it was also a good source for non agricultural raw materials such as minerals and forest products.

2. Need areas of  Market. Due to the investment of capital in production, industrial goods flooded the European markets. Overproduction and under consumption became a critical problem among the industrial capitalists hence they were forced to look for markets outside Europe

3. Needs for raw materials. The increasing production due to expansion of industries needed large quantities of raw materials supply. These materials included cotton, coffee, tea, iron ore, palm oil, sisal, sugar cane, tobacco and rubber. The available raw materials could not meet the demand needed by industries.This resulted into the search and control of the sources of raw materials. 

4. Demand of Cheap labours. Due to labour consciousness caused by working class in Europe and Britain in particular, the need to search for cheap labour become important. This was a measure taken to compete in production for profit maximisation. 

5. Area to settlement surplus labours. Also they demanded the area for surplus unemployed personal population in their countries.

Agents of industrial capitalism

There were about four groups of agents of industrial capitalism in Africa namely: 
1.Explorers 
2. Missionaries 
3. Traders

EXPLORERS
During the nineteenth century the major aim of European powers was the exploration of Africa. In east Africa, exploration was done by the prominent explores such as Speke, Burton, Grant, Samuel Baker, Henry M. Stanley and Dr. Livingstone, while in central Africa and parts of Congo the prominent explorers were Dr. Livingstone and later Henry M. Stanley. And in West Africa the prominent explorers included Richard Lander, Dr. Barth Mungo Park, Clapperton, Dr. Baikie, Gaspard Mollien and Cailie.

The journey of exploration was financed and supported by European capitalists. The main aim was to gather information about Africa because they needed a wider knowledge of the continent. They also wanted to know about the raw materials which African had to sell and the location of the main centers of population. Moreover, they were interested in the knowledge of transport potentialities of African great river systems. For example the British explorer, Mungo Park in 1780s, followed by Clapperton and Richard Lander explored the Niger and gathered important information about the economy and politics of West Africa.

Roles of explorers
They reported back about the potentialities of the African resources: Clapperton reported about the river Niger to the British government while Speke reported about the potentiality of Lake Victoria and named it Victoria to honor Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom.

They provided important information about the nature of African societies: They reported about thehostility, calmness and hospitality of the African people. This information played a central role for the European colonialists during the decision making process regarding the colonisation of Africa.

They explored important mountains and researched the geology, climatic conditions, topography, lakes and animal species in Africa:This knowledge later attracted European powers to colonise Africa.

They provided messages to their government about the existing evils of slave trade and the areas where slave trade was still conducted:Dr. Livingstone's third journey through Tanganyika and Lake Regions of central Africa was targeted for that as a result he informed the English that the Yao's land was still characterised by slave raids and the effects of slave trade such as sufferings, insecurity.

The information provided by explorers to their government was later used by humanitarians in the struggle against the colonisation of Africa.

MISSIONARIES

By the 19th century missionary activities had started in Africa. The pioneers were the protestant churches of Europe and America. It was only later that Roman arrived especially from France. The domination of missionaries were the London missionary society, the church missionary society, Roman Catholic missionary society and the universities mission to central Africa (UMCA).

Few Christian missionaries were directly active agents of imperialism. They were essential ingredients of the increasingly assertive European access to Africa. However In most cases European Christian played an important role in promoting and shaping the advent of European capitalism.

The role played by missionaries in the colonisation of Africa

They acted as interpreters and propagandists at the time of treaty making:Mofat stayed among the Ndebele for about 30 years serving the British South African company (BSAC) for treaty making between the companies (BSAC) and King Lobengula.

They acted as advisors to African chiefs:The British missionaries of the church missionary society convinced Kabaka to accept protectorate.

They introduced Western civilisation to the interior through education and schools:Thisaimed to prepare people of low ranks to serving colonial masters at the time of colonisation.

Missionaries softened the minds and the hearts of Africans: Their activities were influenced by European imperialists' interests by preaching and emphasising the spiritual beliefs such as “give to God what which belongs to God," and "give to Ceaser what belongs to Ceaser”. In the long run this preaching weakened African opposition and shaped the regions for future colonial administration.

They converted Africans to the new faith: They were easily employed as puppets to extend colonial rule. Typical examples are the converts of Sierra Leone, Nigeria and Ghana who were able to protect the British economic interests and paved the way for future colonisation by the British.

Missionaries reduced resistance among African societies: This was done by converting some societies and preaching obedience to administrators.

Introduction of new crops: Horner grew coffee at Bagamoyo around 1870 the church missionaries society grew cotton in Uganda. This prepared people to acquire the skills which were important for future cash crop production during the colonial era.

They helped in the abolition of slave trade: Theyplanned for successful Christianisation of the freed slaves as they preached the word of God. They wanted to create the conducive and peaceful environment for the development of legitimate trade which was exploitative in nature and was after capitalists interests.

Missionaries had closer links with rulers and interfered even in political matters:They allied European imperialism while they were working in the interior of Africa. This situation provoked the hostility from African rulers. In this case missionaries appealed strongly for the protection from their home governments, which later led to effective colonisation.

TRADERS 
Traders were among the first Europeans to visit the interior and coastal areas of Africa. They came under the influence of capitalists who also supported missionaries and explorers. 
Their main aim was to exploit the new sources of raw materials, markets and new areas in which industrial capitalists had to invest their capital. Examples of traders are William Macknnon, James Stevenson, Harry Johnston and Carl Peters.

The role played by traders in the colonisation of Africa 
They opened a new a exploitative system: Therefore, Africa became the target for European interests. This resulted in stiff rivalries and competition among European industrial nations. 
Introduction of circuit through legitimate trade: This involved the importation of European manufactured goods. Thus, the chain of dependence was created and the African local industries and the arts were destroyed. 
Traders exposed Africa to the world capitalist system of economy: The use of currency, banking and credit facilities began to be witnessed by Africans. This resulted into exploitation of African resources. The fair and quick turns obtained by traders attracted European colonialists to come into Africa. 
They opened communication systems such as roads:This laid the foundation for future colonial infrastructure. For example, the road from Lake Nyasa to Tanganyika known as Livingstone road was opened by traders and was used during the colonial administration.

 COMPANIES AND ASSOCIATIONS
Companies and association were among the most important agents of colonisation of Africa. Agents organised themselves into companies and associations. They received finance from their home government so as to operate effectively and differently in those areas, where the governing powers had their economic interests. They aimed at financing the exploration that showed the interest of coming to Africa. 
Examples of the association included the Royal British Geographical society, financed by John Speke to explore the river Nile. Another was the African Association of British, which in 1788 financed Mungo Park. Its major aim was to explore and identify the areas suitable for agriculture, which could produce enough materials for export. Another concern of that association was to identify the navigable rivers, mineral deposits and assessing the market available for industrial goods. 

In the abolition of slave trade, merchant companies became increasingly involved in the interior of Africa. The major aim of these companies was to establish the so called “legitimate trade”. This was trade in commodities and other resources that industrial capitalist required as raw materials or as food for the urban working classes. The legitimate trade did not involve the selling and buying human 
Several companies in Africa were established at strategic points for the purpose of collecting important commodities for export and supplying manufactured goods from Europe. 

In East Africa examples of these companies were the Imperial British East African Company (I.B.E.A.C) founded in 1886 by William Macknnon. It was also known as the British East Africa Association. Another company was the Germany East African Company (G.E.A.C) founded in 1884 by Carl Peters. In West Africa examples of companies formed included the Royal Niger Company (R.N.C) which was formed by George Turban Goldie in 1884. 

The association was concerned with commercial activities. King Leopold expected that the company could improve the lives of native as well as civilising them, exploiting natural resources and abolishing slave trade and slavery in the region. 
In central Africa the company prevailed was the Livingstone central Africa Company (L.C.A.C). it was formed by Scottish capita lists James Steven in 1878. 

In south Africa there was the British south Africa company (B.S.A.C) formed by Cecil Rhodes as a private company and operated in south and central Africa by the year 1889, the company was given a royal charter that included the full powers to administer the company.

The role played by companies in the colonisation of Africa. 

Monopolisation and exploitation of African resources: These resources were highly needed by the European capitalists in their industries. In all parts of Africa Company played a crucial role of collecting raw materials and carried out trade activities. 

Elimination of local middlemen and creation of custom duties and tariffs:  
These was carried out by the companies which attracted the imperialists powers to control Africa. 

The companies encouraged their home government to colonise Africa:  
For example; the Royal Niger Company encouraged the British to colonise Nigeria after gaining the control of the different trading areas in the region. 

Signing treaties: The company played an important role of signing different treaties with African local chiefs. These treaties helped imperial powers to claim and justify the colonisation of particular territories, especially during the Berlin Conference 
One example was a treaty signed between Harry Johnston and chief Mandara of Uchaga in 1884 to control thirteen square kilometers of land in Kilimanjaro. Also Dr. Carl Peters of the society for German colonisation signed treaties with a number of chief between Pangani and Rufiji. These treaties were later used by the German government to control Tanganyika. 

Creation of infrastructure: These included commercial centers, administrative headquarters, roads, railways and waterways. They were allocated in those areas where they operated where by later on were used by the imperial powers to transport administrators to colonise and impose laws on the land. 

The companies laid foundations for their home government to colonise African: 
They suppressed African resistance through a police force used to maintain peace, order and stability within the region. For example in East Africa, the German East African Company recruited Swahili, Sudanese and Buganda soldier to counter the coastal Arab resistance of 1888-1889. 
They provided important information about economic potentiality of African areas:Africa was exposed to the imperial powers which aimed to colonise the continent. 
The companies provided rudimentary administration in areas of their operation: Some company leaders such as Sir. George Turban Goldie of the Royal Niger Company, Harry Johnston, the representative of Cecil Rhodes of the British South Africa Company, attended the Berlin Conference of 1884-188 5. They also notified the conference about areas where they operate on behalf of their mother countries. 
The company played an important role of marking of the administrative boundaries:Which were later identified as boundaries of the European spheres of influence. They prevented any other rival European imperial power from taking their territories. This was evidenced in East Africa where the German East Africa Company marked the area of the German in the Anglo-German rivalry and achieved the 1886 agreement. While in South Africa the British South Africa Company managed to map the claims of Britain, thus preventing the Portuguese from interfering in the British sphere of influence. 
Furthermore, the companies used their security organs to abolish slave trade in the areas of their influence. They introduced legitimate trade in Africa.

ABOLITION OF SLAVE TRADE
 The British government was the first country to abolish slave trade during the years, 1822-1826. This was because of various factors. This includes the following.

Rise of humanitarians in Europe such as Christians and scholars condemned it on moral grounds. The missionaries wanted it to be stopped because they wanted good conditions for the spread of Christianity. The formation of humanitarian movement in England aimed at stopping all kinds of cruelty including slave trade, flogging of soldiers and child labour.

Industrialisation in Britain, e.g. Britain industrialists urged its abolition because they wanted Africans to be left in Africa so that Africa can be source of raw materials for their industries, market for European manufactured goods and place for new investment of surplus capital

Formation of the anti slavery movement and the abolitionist movement in 1787, its chairman was Granville Sharp and others like Thomas Clarkson, William Wilberforce who gathered facts and stories about the brutality of slave trade and slavery to arouse public opinion in Britain.

Religious revival in Europe, Anglican preached and condemned slave trade as opposed to laws of God and humanity. Catholic pope also protested against the trade and prohibited it. In 1774, many religious leaders served as examples when they liberated their slaves in England.

The French revolution of 1789 and the American revolution of 1776, emphasised liberty, equality and fraternity (brotherhood) of all human beings, as a result people began to question whether anyone had a right to deprive a fellow man of his liberty when he had done wrong.

The British desire to protect their national interests: British planters wanted slave trade stopped to avoid competition with other European planters. This is because other planters were producing cheaper sugar hence the need to stop over production

The rise of men with new ideas:Prof. Adam Smith (challenged the economic arguments which were the basis of slave trade when he argued convincingly that hired labour is cheaper and more productive than slave labour, Rousseau spread the idea of personal liberty and equality of all men.

Slaves had become less profitable: Yethad led to overpopulation in Europe. Influential abolitionists like William Wilberforce (a British member of parliaments) urged the British government to legislate against the slave trade in her colonies.

The ship owners stopped transporting slaves from Africa and began raw materials directly from Africa and America to Europe, which led to a decline in slave trade.

 The Tactics Used During the Abolition of Slave Trade 
The movement to abolish slave trade started in Britain with the formation of anti-slavery movements. The British government abolished slave trade through anti slave laws (legislation), treaties and use of force. The anti slavery movement was led by Granville Sharp, other members were Thomas Clarkson, William Wilberforce and others.

• The first step was taken in 1772 when slavery was declared illegal and abolished in Britain. The humanitarians secured judgment against slavery from the British court.
• In 1807, British parliament outlawed slave trade for British subjects.
• In 1817 British negotiated the “the reciprocal search treaties” with Spain and Portugal.
• Equipment treaties signed with Spain 1835, Portugal 1842 and America 1862. In east Africa in 1822 Mores by treaty was signed between captain Moresby and sultan Seyyid Said it forbade the shipping of slaves outside the sultan's territories. British sips were authorised to stop and search suspected Arabs slave carrying dhows.
• In 1845, Hamerton treaty was signed between Colonel Hamerton and sultan Seyyid Said. It forbade the shipping of slaves outside the sultan's East Africa territories i.e. beyond to the North.
• In 1871, the British set up the parliamentary commission of inquiry to investigate and report on slave trade in East Africa.
• In 1872, sir. Bartle Frere persuaded sultan Barghash to stop slave trade but not much was achieved.
• On 5th march 1873, the sultan passed a decree prohibiting the export of slaves from mainland and closed of slave market at Zanzibar. Zanzibar slave market was to be closed within 24 hours
• In 1876, sultan decreed that no slaves were to be transported overland.
• In 1897, decree left slaves to claim their freedom themselves
• In 1907, slavery was abolished entirely in Zanzibar and Pemba.
• In 1927, slavery ended in Tanganyika w hen British took over from Germany after the Second World War.

Effects of the abolition of slave trade

Loss of independence, the suppression of slave trade led to loss of independence that is to say, legitimate trade which provided equally profitable business to both European and African traders. Many ship owners diverted their ships from transporting slaves to transporting raw cotton and raw sugar from Brazil and America.

It accelerated the coming of European missionaries to East Africa who emphasised peace and obedience thus the future European colonisation of East Africa.

Disintegration of the Sultan Empire: This is because it loosened the economic and political control which the sultan had over the east African nations. His empire in East Africa therefore began to crumble. This gave opportunity to other ambitious leaders like Tippu-Tip to create independent state in Manyema, where he began selling his ivory and slaves to the Belgians in Zaire.

Closing of slave trade markets, for example Zanzibar in 1873 following the Frere treaty signed between sultan Barghash and Bantle Frere.

Islam became unpopular as many converted to Christianity

African societies regained their respect and strength as they were no longer sold off as commodities.

Generally, abolition of slave trade was a catalyst to the partition of East Africa whereby Britain took over Kenya, Zanzibar and Uganda while Germany took over Tanganyika.

 British Occupation of South Africa via the Cape

British at the Cape 

Britain took control of the cape during the era of mercantilism in Europe. At the end of 18th century the British became interested in seizing the cape colony from the Dutch. During 1793 France invaded the Netherlands. King William V. sought refuge in Britain and also asked for protection for Dutch colonies and trading interests. During this time, the British already controlled India and the trade between India and Europe. In 1795 the British occupied the cape twice for a short period of time. From 1806 onwards especially when the Napoleonic wars ended in 1815 the Britain made a formal purchase of the Cape from the Netherlands for six million pounds sterling. Therefore British started to settle at the Cape in 1806.

 The Motives for the British Interests at the Cape

• To increase colonies: The British wanted to increase and expand her spheres of influence following this she decided to occupy the Cape.
• Industrial revolution in Europe, following this British wanted to increase sources of raw materials, labour, and markets for her industries since the Cape were very productive.
• Trade interests, Britain did not want another European power to control the Cape because that would interfere the smooth flow of trade between Britain and India.
• The South African Cape was strategically located. It was an appropriate place for British ships to stop during their voyages to or from India. They could get fresh supplies adwater for the reminder of their journey.

Tactics used by British to occupy the Cape

• Introduction of land legislation system: They aimed at discouraging pastoralism among Boers and to encourage sedentary farming since the policy limited the size of an individual's land. The Dutch thought that the British introduced the land law to take land from the Boers and redistribute it to the landless Khoikhoi so they opposed the land law.
• Abolition of slave trade and slavery in 1807: The British government abolished slave trade in all their colonies and offered compensation for slaves but the money was only paid inLondon as a result the majority did not get their compensation. However, freeing slavesendangered the economic survival of the Boers as they depended much on slave labour.
• Imposition of the English language as the as the language of administering the law and justice and the medium of instruction in schools in 1822. Hence English language replaced the Dutch as he official language.
• Abolition of internal trade restriction imposed by the Dutch company officials on the farmers and other settlers at the cape. This created more trade opportunities as they could now trade freely without strictly control from the administration.
• Introduction of the pass in 1809 to reduce the exploitation of African labour as the system required African workers to carry passbooks which indicated their residence and employment, and those who did not carry them were regarded as criminals. The pass prevented the Africans from moving from district to district or moving into areas occupied by Europeans.
• Introduction of contract system, through this the Boers were to sign contracts with their workers. In those contracts they were to mention the wages and other fringe benefits that they gave to their workers. Therefore the Boers regarded the contract system as British interference in the traditional Boer-Africans relationship of master-servant.
• Introduction of the Black circuit court system in 1811 in order to reduce acts of violence committed by European employers against African employees. The law angered the Boers who considered themselves a superior race and thus natural masters of the Africans.
• Introduction of English law as the basis of the legal system in South Africa.
• Provision of financial aid to the British settlers by the British government, this encouraged more of its citizens to immigrate to the Cape as a result in 1820 some 300 British settlers arrived in South Africa increasing the total white population by almost 12% within weeks.

The Boer trek/movement

The great trek( Afrikaans: Die Groot Trek) was an east ward and north ward migration away from British control in the cape colony during the 1830's and 1840's by Boers (Dutch/Afrikaans “farmer”).

The migrant were descended from settlers from western mainland Europe, most notably from the Netherlands, northwest Germany and French Huguenots. The great trek itself led to the founding of numerous Boer republics, the Natalia republic, the Orange Free State republic and the Transvaal being the most notable.

From the beginning of the 18th century the cape settlers expanded their territory towards the north and the east. These settling movements were led by the Trek Boers, white farmers who penetrated the hinterland looking for grazing land for their cattle.

The Trek Boers preferred the free and unrestricted life on their ox wagons and in tents to the more protected existence within the realms of town administration. The price they had to pay for their lifestyle was constant armed conflicts with native people. First the Khoikhoi successfully resisted the conquest of their residential and grazing land.

And from the turn of the century it was the people of the Xhosa living to the east, who stood up against the Trek Boers. Frequent skirmishes occurred, particularly in the Zuurveld in the east of the colony, to the boundary of the great fish river. In 1779, the first of the ferocious Xhosa wars broke out.

In the town communities the danger of a confrontation was also growing. Here the opposing parties were on one hand the citizens, aspiring to political autonomy, and on the other hand a weak, corrupt and almost bankrupt colonial administration.

The town's people demanded their independence from the colonial administration. In Swellendam and Graaff-Reinet, the first republics were proclaimed, although they only existed for a short time. The power struggle between citizens and administration ended with the landing of British ships at the cape and the annexing of the colony to the United Kingdom in 1795.

 The Reasons for the Boer Trek

British occupation of the cape allowed Boers to penetrate further into the interior.

Boers dislike laws imposed by British in the Cape Province which gave greater equality to non-Whites races.

Abolition of slavery, the British administration at the cape forced Boers to free their African slaves.

Boers dislike the system of land holding which was introduced by British i.e. Boers were to pay higher rent.

Misunderstanding between Boers stock farmers and British administration

Boers dislike the British government decision of using the English language as the language of the government and in courts.

Boers wanted to be outside of the British government authority.

 The Effects of the Bhttps://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=6824074576615910731#editor/target=post;postID=7717200080203085790;onPublishedMenu=allposts;onClosedMenu=allposts;postNum=0;src=postnameoer Trek

Creating of two Boer republics, that is the Orange Free State and South African republic.

Boers defeated black tribes on the way and took over their land and properties.

Establishment of apartheid policy.

Development of hostility between the Boers and British colonisers.

Africans were made property less labourers and squatters on Boers stock farms.

African land was alienated i.e. taken by foreigners

Intermarriage thus creation of Afrikaners.