OEM 201: EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP

OEM 201: EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP

January 15, 2018
Albert J.Safari

INTRODUCTION
This course on educational management and leadership is meant to equip learners with the knowledge of various aspects in the areas of educational management and leadership. The knowledge obtained from the course could be useful to student teachers and other learners aspiring to develop their knowledge of management and leadership in education. This course is going to cover the following aspects:
1. Management and leadership theories
2. Functions and tasks of management
3. Pedagogical and technical leadership skills
4. Educational management and leadership skills
5. Management of change in educational organizations
6. Management of educational resources
7. Conflict and conflict management in educational organizations
8. Organizational climate and culture in educational institutions
9. Research in educational management and leadership
10. Teacher services organs
COURSE OBJECTIVES
By the end of the course student teachers should be able to achieve the following:
1. To acquire theoretical background of management and leadership;
2. To obtain knowledge and skills for managing educational organizations;
3. To attain leadership skills in managing changes, conflicts, resources and culture in educational organizations.
4. To gain aspects of pedagogical and technical leadership skills to student teachers;
5. To attain basic research skills in educational management and leadership;
6. To gain investigative skills that helps leaders to make rational decisions;
7. To understand public services tools.
LECTURE ONE
THE CONCEPT OF EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP
This lecture introduces the concept of educational management and leadership and a range of other useful terminologies
1. Management
The term management
originated from an Italian word maneggiare which means handle.
Okumbe (1999) defines management as the process of designing, developing, and effecting organizational objectives and resources so as to achieve predetermined organizational goals.
Bose (2003) supports Okumbe by stressing that management is the function of getting things done through people and directing efforts of individuals towards a common objective.
In the biography of Mary Parker Follett (1868–1933) written by P. Graham management is defined as the art of getting things done through the efforts of other people.
Management involves coordinating and overseeing the work activities of others so that their activities are completed efficiently and effectively.
1. Coordinating and overseeing the work of others is what distinguishes a managerial position from a non managerial one.
2. Efficiency is getting the most output from the least amount of inputs in order to minimize resource costs. Efficiency is often referred to as “doing things right”
3. Effectiveness is completing activities so that organizational goals are attained. Effectiveness is often described as “doing the right things”
2. Educational management
Educational management is a complex human enterprise in which different resources are brought together and made available to achieve and to accomplish the desire and expected educational goals or objectives.
Thus management of education or educational management implies the practical measures for ensuring the system to work for achieving the goals or objectives of an educational institution. Educational management operates in educational organizations or institutions.
3. Manager
A manager is someone who coordinates and oversees the work of other people so that organizational goals can be accomplished. A manager is not seeking for personal achievement but helping others do their job. Managers may also have additional work duties not related to coordinating the work of others.
Managers can be classified by their level in the organization, particularly in traditionally structured organizations—those shaped like a pyramid
First-line managers
(often called supervisors) are located on the lowest level of management.
Middle managers include all levels of management between the first-line level and the top level of the organization.
Top managers include managers at or near the top of the organization who are responsible for making organization-wide decisions and establishing plans and goals that affect the entire organization.
4. Administration
Administration is the ability to mobilize human and material resources towards achievement of organizational goals.
Nwankwo (1981) describes administration as the careful and systematic arrangement and use of human and material resources, situations and opportunities for the achievement of specific objectives.
Beach (1975) support the statement by adding that administration is a part of management which is concerned with the installation and carrying out of the procedures by which programs, plans and targets are laid down and communicated, and the progress of activities regulated and checked against them.
5. Educational Administration
Okumbe (1999) defines educational administration as a process of acquiring and allocating resources for the achievement of predetermined educational goals. The field ideally distinguishes itself from administration and management through its adherence to guiding principles of educational philosophy.
Schools or colleges comprise certain personnel i.e. teaching and non-teaching staff as well as the students. These human resources in the school or college work with some materials, such as instructional materials, equipment, and financial resources in order to achieve the objectives of the school/college.
Akinwumi & Jayeoba (2004) define school administration as the scientific organization of human and material resources and programs available for education and using them systematically and meticulously to achieve educational goals. In this case the term educational administration can synonymously be used with the term school administration.
6. The difference between management and administration
Administration may be defined as a process of coordinating human and material resources in order to achieve organizational goals. Administration deals with gathering, processing, and communicating information.
Practically, everybody working for an organization participates in the administrative activities. Even those who do not hold any managerial position participate when receiving written or oral instructions and reporting back on the outcome of their work.
Those who have managerial positions complete much more administrative activities, for example, they are engaged in planning of various processes, and assigning resources to various units of the organization.
Differences between management and administration can be summarized as follows:-
The nature of work. Administration is concerned with the determination of objectives and major policies of an organization. Management puts into action the policies and plans laid out by the administration. Thus, administration plays a determinative function while the management plays an executive function.
The level of authority. Administration is a top-level activity while management is middle level activity.
The nature of status. Administration consists of owners who invest the capital and receive profits or dividend from an enterprise while management is a group of managerial personnel who use their specialized knowledge to fulfill the objective of an enterprise.
Nature of usage. Administration is popular with government, military, educational and religious organizations while management is mostly used in business enterprises.
Main functions. Administration involves planning and organizing functions while management involves motivating and controlling functions.
The abilities required. Administration needs administrative rather than technical abilities. Management requires technical activities. Management handles the employers. Administration handles the business aspects such as finance.
What influence decisions. In administration decisions are influenced by public opinion, government policies, social and religious factors while management decisions are influenced by the values, opinions and beliefs of the managers.
7. Leadership
Is the process of social influence in which one person can enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common task.
According to Rauch & Behling, (1984) leadership is the process of influencing the activities of an organized group toward goal achievement.
House et al., (1999) define leadership as “the ability of an individual to influence, motivate, and enable others to contribute toward the effectiveness and success of the organization…”
Northouse (2004) defines Leadership as a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal.
He further identified four common themes in the way leadership now tends to be conceived: (1) leadership is a process ; (2) leadership involves influence; (3) leadership occurs in a group context; and (4) leadership involves goal attainment .
The leader may or may not have any formal authority. With regards to how leaders emerge various theories have been provided produced involving traits, situational interaction, function, behavior, power, vision and values, charisma and intelligence, among others.
8. Leader
A leader is a person who guides others toward a common goal, showing the way by example, and creating an environment in which other team members feel actively involved in the entire process.
A leader is not the boss of the team but, instead, the person that is committed to carrying out the mission of the venture for example a school.
A leader is a person who influences a group of people towards the achievement of a goal. A leader by its meaning is one who goes first and leads by example, so that others are motivated to follow him. This is a basic requirement. To be a leader, a person must have a deep-rooted commitment to the goal.

HISTORIA YA LUGHA YA KISWAHILI

Imetayarishwa na Mwl.Safari Albert.J,
Simu:+255 715 803 005
barua pepe:salbertode@yahoo.com
 

Historia ya Kiswahili imeanza takriban miaka 1000 iliyopita kwenye pwani ya Afrika ya Mashariki.
Neno Swahili lina asili ya Kiarabu: Sahil ina maana ya pwani; sawahil ’’as-sawāhilī’’ (السواحلي) ni wingi wake kwa kumaanisha yote yanayohusiana na pwani, watu au utamaduni wa eneo la pwani.

ENGLISH VERB TENSES - GRAMMAR RULES

VERB TENSES

Prepared By:Sir.Albert J.Safar

Mobile NO. +255 715 803 005

Mail Address: salbertode@yahoo.com

Verbs come in three tenses: past, present, and future. The past is used to describe things that have already happened (e.g., earlier in the day, yesterday, last week, three years ago). The present tense is used to describe things that are happening right now, or things that are continuous. The future tense describes things that have yet to happen (e.g., later, tomorrow, next week, next year, three years from now).

The following table illustrates the proper use of verb tenses:

Simple Present	Simple Past	Simple Future
I read nearly every day.	Last night, I read an entire novel.	I will read as much as I can this year.
Present Continuous	Past Continuous	Future Continuous
I am reading Shakespeare at the moment.	I was reading Edgar Allan Poe last night.	I will be reading Nathaniel Hawthorne soon.
Present Perfect	Past Perfect	Future Perfect
I have read so many books I can’t keep count.	I had read at least 100 books by the time I was twelve.	I will have read at least 500 books by the end of the year.
Present Perfect Continuous	Past Perfect Continuous	Future Perfect Continuous
I have been reading since I was four years old.	I had been reading for at least a year before my sister learned to read.	I will have been reading for at least two hours before dinner tonight.

Simple Present

The simple present is a verb tense with two main uses. We use the simple present tense when an action is happening right now, or when it happens regularly (or unceasingly, which is why it’s sometimes called present indefinite). Depending on the person, the simple present tense is formed by using the root form or by adding ‑s or ‑es to the end.

I feel great! Pauline loves pie. I’m sorry to hear that you’re sick.

The other is to talk about habitual actions or occurrences.

Pauline practices the piano every day. Ms. Jackson travels during the summer. Hamsters run all night.

Typically, when we want to describe a temporary action that is currently in progress, we use the present continuous: Pauline can’t come to the phone right now because she is brushing her teeth.

How to Form the Simple Present

In the simple present, most regular verbs use the root form, except in the third-person singular (which ends in -s).

First-person singular: I write

Second-person singular: You write

Third-person singular: He/she/it writes (note the ‑s)

First-person plural: We write

Second-person plural: You write

Third-person plural: They write

For a few verbs, the third-person singular ends with -es instead of -s. Typically, these are verbs whose root form ends in o, ch, sh, th, ss, gh, or z.

First-person singular: I go

Second-person singular: You go

Third-person singular: He/she/it goes (note the ‑es)

First-person plural: We go

Second-person plural: You go

Third-person plural: They go

For most regular verbs, you put the negation of the verb before the verb, e.g. “She won’t go” or “I don’t smell anything.”

The verb to be is irregular:

First-person singular: I am

Second-person singular: You are

Third-person singular: He/she/it is

First-person plural: We are

Second-person plural: You are

Third-person plural: They are

How to Make the Simple Present Negative

The formula for making a simple present verb negative is do/does + not + [root form of verb]. You can also use the contraction don’t or doesn’t instead of do not or does not.

Pauline does not want to share the pie. She doesn’t think there is enough to go around. Her friends do not agree. I don’t want pie anyway.

To make the verb to be negative, the formula is [to be] + not.

I am not a pie lover, but Pauline sure is. You aren’t ready for such delicious pie.

How to Ask a Question

The formula for asking a question in the simple present is do/does + [subject] + [root form of verb].

Do you know how to bake a pie? How much does Pauline love pie?

Common Verbs in the Simple Present

Infinitive	I, You, We, They	He, She, It
to ask	ask / do not ask	asks / does not ask
to work	work / do not work	works / does not work
to call	call / do not call	calls / does not call
to use	use / do not use	uses / does not use
to have	have / do not have	has / does not have

The Verb to Be in the Simple Present

Infinitive	I	You, We, They	He, She, It
to be	am / am not	are / are not	is / is not

	Simple Past Tense The simple past is a verb tense that is used to talk about things that happened or existed before now. Imagine someone asks what your brother Wolfgang did while he was in town last weekend. Wolfgang entered a hula hoop contest. He won the silver medal. The simple past tense shows that you are talking about something that has already happened. Unlike the past continuous tense, which is used to talk about past events that happened over a period of time, the simple past tense emphasizes that the action is finished. Wolfgang admired the way the light glinted off his silver medal. You can also use the simple past to talk about a past state of being, such as the way someone felt about something. This is often expressed with the simple past tense of the verb to be and an adjective, noun, or prepositional phrase. Wolfgang was proud of his hula hoop victory. The contest was the highlight of his week. How to Formulate the Simple Past For regular verbs, add -ed to the root form of the verb (or just -d if the root form already ends in an e): Play→Played Type→Typed Listen→Listened Push→Pushed Love→Loved For irregular verbs, things get more complicated. The simple past tense of some irregular verbs looks exactly like the root form: Put→Put Cut→Cut Set→Set Cost→Cost Hit→Hit For other irregular verbs, including the verb to be, the simple past forms are more erratic: See→Saw Build→Built Go→Went Do→Did Rise→Rose Am/Is/Are→Was/Were The good news is that verbs in the simple past tense (except for the verb to be) don’t need to agree in number with their subjects. Wolfgang polished his medal. The other winners polished their medals too. How to Make the Simple Past Negative Fortunately, there is a formula for making simple past verbs negative, and it’s the same for both regular and irregular verbs (except for the verb to be). The formula is did not + [root form of verb]. You can also use the contraction didn’t instead of did not. Wolfgang did not brag too much about his hula hoop skills. Wolfgang’s girlfriend didn’t see the contest. For the verb to be, you don’t need the auxiliary did. When the subject of the sentence is singular, use was not or wasn’t. When the subject is plural, use were not or weren’t. The third-place winner was not as happy as Wolfgang. The fourth-place winner wasn’t happy at all. The onlookers were not ready to leave after the contest ended. The contestants weren’t ready to leave either. How to Ask a Question The formula for asking a question in the simple past tense is did + [subject] + [root form of verb]. Did Wolfgang win the gold medal or the silver medal? Where did Wolfgang go to celebrate? Did the judges decide fairly, in your opinion? When asking a question with the verb to be, you don’t need the auxiliary did. The formula is was/were + [subject]. Was Wolfgang in a good mood after the contest? Were people taking lots of pictures? Common Regular Verbs in the Past Tense Common Irregular Verbs in the Past Tense
	Simple Future Tense The simple future is a verb tense that’s used to talk about things that haven’t happened yet. This year, Jen will read War and Peace. It will be hard, but she’s determined to do it. Use the simple future to talk about an action or condition that will begin and end in the future. How to Form the Simple Future The formula for the simple future is will + [root form of verb]. I will learn a new language. Jen will read that book. My brothers will sleep till noon if no one wakes them up. You will see what I mean. It doesn’t matter if the subject is singular or plural; the formula for the simple future doesn’t change. But… There is another way to show that something will happen in the future. It follows the formula [am/is/are] + going to + [root form verb]. I am going to learn a new language. Jen is going to read that book. My brothers are going to sleep till noon if no one wakes them up. You are going to see what I mean. The “going to” construction is common in speech and casual writing. Keep in mind though that it’s on the informal side, so it’s a good idea to stick to the will + [root form] construction in formal writing. How to Make the Simple Future Negative To make the simple future negative, the formula is will + not + [root form]. Jen will not quit before she reaches her goal. Make sure you arrive on time tomorrow because the bus will not wait for you. He will not say anything bad about his boss. I will not finish my homework in time for class. Using the “going to” construction, the formula is [am/is/are] + not + going to + [root form]. Jen is not going to quit before she reaches her goal. Make sure you arrive on time tomorrow because the bus is not going to wait for you. He is not going to say anything bad about his boss. I am not going to finish my homework in time for class. How to Ask a Question To ask a question in the simple future, the formula is will + [subject] + [root form]. Will Jen finish War and Peace over the summer? Will I have the discipline to study Spanish every day? What will you buy with the money you found? The formula for the “going to” construction is [am/is/are] + [subject] +going to + [root form]. Is Jen going to finish War and Peace over the summer? Am I going to have the discipline to study Spanish every day? What are you going to buy with the money you found? Common Verbs in the Simple Past The “Going to” Construction
	Present Perfect Tense The present perfect is used when an action began in the past yet is still relevant. It’s created by using the present tense of have + the past participle. I have seen You have seen He/she/it has seen We have seen You have seen They have seen Martha has asked for the day off. Who Has Seen the Wind is an excellent book. They have slept in because it’s Saturday morning. Remember to look out for irregular past participles. He has drunk all the milk again. The dogs have lain down in front of the fire. You’ve left your umbrella behind.

		Past Perfect Tense The past perfect, also called the pluperfect, is a verb tense used to talk about actions that were completed before some point in the past. We were shocked to discover that someone had graffitied “Tootles was here” on our front door. We were relieved that Tootles had used washable paint. The past perfect tense is for talking about something that happened before something else. Imagine waking up one morning and stepping outside to grab the newspaper. On your way back in, you notice a mysterious message scrawled across your front door: Tootles was here. When you’re telling this story to your friends later, how would you describe this moment? You might say something like: I turned back to the house and saw that some someone named Tootles had defaced my front door! In addition to feeling indignant on your behalf, your friends will also be able to understand that Tootles graffitied the door at some point in the past before the moment this morning when you saw his handiwork, because you used the past perfect tense to describe the misdeed. The Past Perfect Formula The formula for the past perfect tense is had + [past participle]. It doesn’t matter if the subject is singular or plural; the formula doesn’t change. When to Use the Past Perfect So what’s the difference between past perfect and simple past? When you’re talking about some point in the past and want to reference an event that happened even earlier, using the past perfect allows you to convey the sequence of the events. It’s also clearer and more specific. Consider the difference between these two sentences: We were relieved that Tootles used washable paint. We were relieved that Tootles had used washable paint. It’s a subtle difference, but the first sentence doesn’t tie Tootles’s act of using washable paint to any particular moment in time; readers might interpret it as “We were relieved that Tootles was in the habit of using washable paint.” In the second sentence, the past perfect makes it clear that you’re talking about a specific instance of using washable paint. Another time to use the past perfect is when you are expressing a condition and a result: If I had woken up earlier this morning, I would have caught Tootles red-handed. The past perfect is used in the part of the sentence that explains the condition (the if-clause). Most often, the reason to write a verb in the past perfect tense is to show that it happened before other actions in the same sentence that are described by verbs in the simple past tense. Writing an entire paragraph with every verb in the past perfect tense is unusual. When Not to Use the Past Perfect Don’t use the past perfect when you’re not trying to convey some sequence of events. If your friends asked what you did after you discovered the graffiti, they would be confused if you said: I had cleaned it off the door. They’d likely be wondering what happened next because using the past perfect implies that your action of cleaning the door occurred before something else happened, but you don’t say what that something else is. The “something else” doesn’t always have to be explicitly mentioned, but context needs to make it clear. In this case there’s no context, so the past perfect doesn’t make sense. How to Make the Past Perfect Negative Making the past perfect negative is simple! Just insert not between had and [past participle]. We looked for witnesses, but the neighbors had not seen Tootles in the act. If Tootles had not included his own name in the message, we would have no idea who was behind it. How to Ask a Question The formula for asking a question in the past perfect tense is had + [subject] + [past participle]. Had Tootles caused trouble in other neighborhoods before he struck ours? Common Regular Verbs in the Past Perfect Tense Common Irregular Verbs in the Past Perfect Tense *The past participle of “to get” is “gotten” in American English. In British English, the past participle is “got.” Future Perfect The future perfect is a verb tense used for actions that will be completed before some other point in the future. The parade will have ended by the time Chester gets out of bed. At eight o’clock I will have left. Key words: Verb, past participle, tense, preposition The future perfect tense is for talking about an action that will be completed between now and some point in the future. Imagine that your friend Linda asks you to take care of her cat for a few days while she goes on a trip. She wants you to come over today at noon so she can show you where to find the cat food and how to mash it up in the bowl just right so that Fluffy will deign to eat it. But you’re busy this afternoon, so you ask Linda if you can come at eight o’clock tonight instead. “No, that won’t work! At eight o’clock I will have left already,” she says. What does the future perfect tell us here? It tells us that Linda is going to leave for her trip some time after right now, but before a certain point in the future (eight o’clock tonight). She probably shouldn’t have waited until the last minute to find a cat sitter. The Future Perfect Formula The formula for the future perfect tense is pretty simple: will have + [past participle]. It doesn’t matter if the subject of your sentence is singular or plural. The formula doesn’t change. When to Use the Future Perfect Tense Sometimes, you can use the future perfect tense and the simple future tense interchangeably. In these two sentences, there is no real difference in meaning because the word before makes the sequence of events clear: Linda will leave before you get there. Linda will have left before you get there. But without prepositions such as before or by the time that make the sequence of events clear, you need to use the future perfect to show what happened first. At eight o’clock Linda will leave. (This means that Linda will wait until 8 o’clock to leave.) At eight o’clock Linda will have left. (This means Linda will leave before 8 o’clock.) When Not to Use the Future Perfect Tense The future perfect tense is only for actions that will be complete before a specified point in the future. In other words, the action you’re talking about must have a deadline. If you don’t mention a deadline, use the simple future tense instead of the future perfect tense. Linda will leave. Linda will have left. The deadline can be very specific (eight o’clock) or it can be vague (next week). It can even depend on when something else happens (after the parade ends). It just has to be some time in the future. How to make the Future Perfect Negative Making a negative future perfect construction is easy! Just insert not between will and have. We will not have eaten breakfast before we get to the airport tomorrow morning. They will not have finished decorating the float before the parade. You can also use the contraction won’t in the place of will not. They won’t have finished decorating the float before the parade. How to Ask a Question The formula for asking a question in the future perfect tense is will + [subject] + have + [past participle]: Will you have eaten lunch already when we arrive? Will they have finished decorating the float before the parade? Prepositional Phrases that Often Go With the Future Perfect By this time next week, Linda will have left for her trip. Three days from now, we will have finished our project. At midnight, the party will have ended. Will you have eaten already? Chester will not have arrived by the time the parade is over. When I travel to France, I will have been to ten countries. My sister will have cleaned the bathroom before the party. As soon as someone buys this chair, I will have sold all the furniture I wanted to get rid of. Common Regular Verbs in the Future Perfect Tense Common Irregular Verbs in the Future Perfect Tense *Be careful when using the verb “to be” in the future perfect tense. The construction is easy to confuse with the future perfect continuous tense. **The past participle of “to get” is gotten in American English. In British English, the past participle is got.
		Present Continuous The present continuous verb tense indicates that an action or condition is happening now, frequently, and may continue into the future. The Present Continuous Formula: to be [am, is, are] + verb [present participle] Aunt Christine is warming up the car while Scott looks for his new leather coat. They are eating at Scott’s favorite restaurant today, Polly’s Pancake Diner. Key words: Verb, present participle, tense, dynamic verbs, stative verbs The present continuous (present progressive) tense is a way to convey any action or condition that is happening right now, frequently, and may be ongoing. It adds energy and action to writing, and its effect helps readers understand when the action is happening. Imagine Aunt Christine has surprised her nephew Scott for his birthday and is going to take him out to his favorite restaurant, Polly’s Pancake Diner. If I wanted to tell the story after it happened, I’d use the past tense: They waited at the red light, and Scott worried they might miss their reservation. (Past tense) But what I really want to convey is how the event unfolded, showing the action as it is happening: They are sitting at Scott’s favorite booth, the one with the sparkling red plastic seats.(For how long? We don’t know, but we do know they are sitting there now.) The waiter is standing behind the counter right now with a notepad in his hand and pencil behind his ear. (Will he ever make it over to the booth? Probably, but not now.) “Are you waiting to open your presents after you eat your pancakes?” said Aunt Christine, taking a sip from her root beer. (Here the present continuous is being used in question form.) From this narrative point of view, the action is immediate and continuous; there’s momentum. Sometimes writers use this tense to add suspense or humor in fictional pieces. What kind of pancakes will Scott and his aunt order? The suspense is killing me! The Present Continuous Formula To form the present continuous, follow this formula: To Be [Am, Is, Are] + Verb [Present Participle] When to Use the Present Continuous Tense Use the present continuous tense with the appropriate “to be” verb and a dynamic verb. A dynamic verb shows action and/or process. For example, Scott’s little sister is arriving at the diner two hours late because her roller-derby team, Chicks Ahoy, won the national championships early today. As she is walking into Polly’s Pancake Diner, she is yelling goodbye to her friends outside, and Scott hopes she doesn’t cause a scene since she is always embarrassing him in public. When Not to Use the Present Continuous Tense Do not use the present continuous tense with stative verbs. Stative verbs show a state of being that does not show qualities of change. These verbs can stay in the simple present. For example, Aunt Christine is preferring the maple walnut pancakes over the banana peanut butter ones that Scott loves. Aunt Christine prefers the maple walnut pancakes over the banana peanut butter ones that Scott loves. Here, the stative verb to prefer shows opinion, and therefore should not be conjugated into the present continuous. Stative verb categories include emotion (to love), possession (to belong), and thoughts (to recognize), and none of these should use the present continuous form. The Exception to the Rule Some verbs can be both dynamic and stative! Think about the verbs to be and to think. In its dynamic form, the verb to be can show action: Sarah, Scott’s little sister, is being bold by ordering the jalapeno-chipotle pancakes. But in its stative form, the verb to be is awkward if conjugated in the present continuous. Sarah is being a tall teenager, who loves her food spicy and her sports dangerous. Sarah is a tall teenageer, who loves her food spicy and her sports dangerous. Here are some more examples: The waiter thinks Scott should save room for pumpkin pie. (Stative and in the simple present) The waiter is thinking about getting a new job that requires less human interaction, like a veterinarian. (Dynamic and in the present continuous) Idiomatic Expressions and Style English can be confusing; what is grammatically correct isn’t always what you might hear in music, in advertisements, or during regular conversations. The present continuous is often used incorrectly. Consider the the popular slogan for McDonald’s: “I’m Lovin’ It.” This is a grammatically incorrect sentence because to love is a stative verb, so why would McDonald’s use it in their advertisements? This marks the difference between grammar and style. Using the present continuous as a means to exaggerate is a stylistic trend, and as such, it would not be surprising to hear this conversation: Scott, glazed with a chocolate mustache, looks over to his aunt and says, “I’m lovin’ me some of these chocolate peanut butter banana pancakes!” “I’m hearing what you’re saying!” she replies, sprinkling powdered sugar atop the stacks on her plate. Here Scott and his Aunt display their excitement in a silly way, emphasizing their feelings. On the other hand, you would never hear a native speaker say these sentences: Scott is loving his Aunt Christine, a self-proclaimed pancake connoisseur. (People would simply say “Scott loves his Aunt Christine . . .”) Sarah is hearing the music from their table-top juke box and resists the urge to dance on the table. (Sarah hears the music. . .) The Final Say If you are teaching English or learning it, I’d recommend simply sticking to grammatically correct constructions and leaving the idiomatic expressions to the creators of advertisements and song lyrics. In formal writing, the experts recommend that when you can use fewer words to express a thought, you should, so use the present continuous sparingly—short and sweet can’t be beat! Common Construction in the Present Continuous Tense Common Dynamic Verbs that USE the Present Continuous Common Stative Verbs that DO NOT USE the Present Continuous
		Past Continuous Tense (Past Progressive Tense) The past continuous tense is used to refer to several temporal situations. It’s made with the past tense of be + the present participle (the root word = ‑ing). Narrative in past tense. It was raining. The water was pouring down in sheets and the passersby were getting wetter with every step, despite their umbrellas. When one action is happening at the time of another particular time. It was raining at noon. It was raining during lunch. When one action is happening at the same time as another. It was raining while I was out walking. Remember not to use the past continuous tense with non-action verbs like seem and know. These verbs should use the simple past. I was knowing my neighbour quite well. I knew my neighbour quite well.
		Future Continuous Tense (Future Progressive Tense) The future continuous relates one action in the future to another specific action or time. It’s formed this way: will + be + present participle (root word + ‑ing). We will be going to the gym after work. Will you be joining us? At 5 a.m. tomorrow, they will be departing Alaska. I’ll be returning home next Thursday. Remember not to use the future continuous tense with non-action verbs like seem and know; include be in this list for future continuous tense. These verbs should use the simple future. She will be being here at 3:00. She will be here at 3:00. Past Perfect Continuous Tense (Past Perfect Progressive Tense) The past perfect continuous is written by using the past tense of have + been + present participle. It’s used when one activity in the past was happening before or after another activity had taken place. Look for the words for, since, and before. The car had been sitting in the garage, unused, for a month. It was 5 o’clock; his parents had been waiting for him since 2 o’clock. Before they immigrated, my father had been working as a surgeon and my mother had been training to be a psychiatrist. We’d been walking for only 5 minutes when the rain started. Remember not to use the past perfect continuous tense with non-action verbs like be, seem, and know. These verbs should use the past perfect. The baby had been being cranky all night. The baby had been cranky all night. Future Perfect Continuous Tense (Future Perfect Progressive Tense) The future perfect continuous tense is used much like the future perfect, but one of the actions is likely to continue beyond the other. It can also be used when one action will be continuing at a certain time in the future. Create the future perfect continuous this way: will + have + been + present participle (root + ‑ing). Look for key words like in and by. In September, I will have been going to school for 4/5 of my life. By 2015, you will have been living in Mexico longer than you’ve lived anywhere else. By the end of this month, she will have been working long enough to get benefits. In three months, they will have been seeing each other for a year. Remember not to use the future perfect continuous tense with non-action verbs like be, seem and know. These verbs should use the future perfect. Tomorrow, I will have been being here for a week. Tomorrow, I will have been here for a week.

NADHARIA MBALIMBALI KUHUSU HISTORIA YA KISWAHILI

NADHARIA ZA ASILI YA KISWAHILI
Imeandaliwa na: MWL.ALBERT.J.SAFARI
Simu: +255 715 803 005
Barua Pepe:  salbertode@yahoo.com

Kiswahili Asili Yake ni Kongo

Baadhi ya wataalamu hudai kuwa asili ya lugha ya Kiswahili ni huko Kongo ambayo baadaye iliitwa Zaire na sasa inaitwa Jamhuri ya Demokrasia ya Kongo. Dai hili linaimarishwa na wazo lingine linalodai kwamba katika vipindi kongwe vilivyopata kuwako, sehemu za Pwani ya Afrika mashariki hazikuwa zimekaliwa na watu. Kutokana na hali ya vita, uchungaji na biashara, inadaiwa kuwa Wabantu walitoka sehemu za Kongo walisambaa na kuja pwani ya Afrika mashariki kupitia Kigoma. Baadhi ya wabantu hawa walipitia sehemu za Uganda. Wakati wa kusambaa kwao, walieneza pia lugha zao ikiwemo hii ya Kiswahili.

Udhaifu wa nadharia hii ni kwamba, madai ya kuwa asili ya Kiswahili ni Kongo hayana msingi kwani mpaka sasa wataalamu wanaodai hivi hawajaweza kueleza na kuthibitisha kisayansi ama Kihistoria juu ya lini hasa watu walianza kuishi pwani ya Afrika mashariki.

  Kiswahili ni Ki-Pijini au ni Ki-Krioli

(i)     Kiswahili ni Ki-Pijini

Baadhi ya wataalamu hudai kuwa Kiswahili ni Ki-Pijini. Wataalamu hawa hudai kwamba Ki-Pijini ni lugha ambayo huzaliwa kutokana na kukutanika  kwa makundi mawili (A) na (B) yanayotumia lugha mbili tofauti. Ili makundi haya yaweze kuwasiliana kunaundwa lugha ambayo kitabia ni tofauti  na zile zinazozungumzwa na makundi yanayohusika. Lugha hii inaweza kuwa na msamiati mwingi kutoka lugha kati ya zile mbili, au inaweza kuwa na msamiati wenye uzito sawa. Lugha hiyo ndiyo inayoitwa Ki-Pijini. Mazingira yanayosababisha kuwepo Ki-Pijini ni kama vile biashara, utumwa, ukoloni, nk.

Kwa mantiki ya nadharia hii, wataalamu hawa hukiona Kiswahili kuwa kilianza kama Ki-Pijini kwani ni tokeo la mwingiliano baina ya wenyeji wa pwani ya Afrika Mashariki na wageni wa kutoka Mashariki ya Kati, hususan Waarabu. Aidha, husisitiza kuwa lugha ya Kiswahili haikuwepo kabla ya hapo.

 

(ii)    Kiswahili ni Ki-Krioli

Wataalamu hawa wanadai kwamba watu wanaozungumza Ki- Pijini wanaweza kuishi pamoja kwa muda wa karne nyingi na kwa hiyo wakaweza kuzoeana na hata kufikia hatua ya kuoana. Wakioana watoto wao huikuta lugha ya ki-Pijini ama lugha yao ya kwanza. Inapofikia hatua ya aina hii kwa watoto wanaozungumza lugha hiyo, wao husemekana sasa  wanazungumza lugha ya Ki-Krioli, lugha ambayo ni hatua ya juu ya Ki-Pijini, yaani Ki-Pijini kilichokomaa.

Nadharia hii hutumia kigezo cha msamiati wa Kiswahili kuonesha uhusiano uliopo kati ya Kiswahili na Kiarabu. Wanadai kuwa, msamiati mwingi wa Kiswahili unatokana na Kiarabu. Hivyo huhitimisha kuwa hapana shaka Kiarabu kimehusika katika kuizalisha na kuikomaza lugha ya Kiswahili.

Udhaifu wa nadharia hii ni kwamba hutumia kigezo cha msamiati tu bila kuzingatia vipengele vingine vya lugha kama vile matamshi, maumbo ya maneno au muundo wa sentensi za Kiswahili. Aidha, wataalamu hawa hawakuhoji suala la kufanana kwa Kiswahili na lugha jirani katika hayo yaliyotajwa hapo juu na katika eneo la Kijografia ambamo Kiswahili na lugha hizo nyingine hujikuta zikizungumzwa. Vigezo hivi ni ushahidi tosha unaoonesha kuwa Kiswahili SI Ki-Pijini wala SI Ki-Krioli, bali ni lugha kama zilivyo hizo lugha jirani.

 

   Kiswahili ni Lugha ya Jamii ya Vizalia

Kundi la kwanza la wataalamu wa nadharia hii, Bishop Edward Steera, Bwana Taylor, Dkt. R. Reusch, (Katika Maganga, 1997)  hudai kwamba:

·        Waarabu na Waajemi waliohamia pwani ya Afrika ya Mashariki waliwaoa wanawake wa  ki-Afrika.

·        Watoto wao walijifunza maneno ya Kiarabu na ki-Ajemi kutoka kwa baba zao.

·         Aidha, watoto hao wakajifunza maneno ya ki-Bantu kutoka kwa mama zao.

·        Katika jitihada zao, watoto hao walijirekebisha kutokana na  tamaduni za wazazi wao ambazo ni tafauti: utamaduni wa Kiarabu na utamaduni wa ki-Bantu.

·        Vizalia hawa wakaanza kutumia lugha mpya ya mseto wa Kiarabu, Kiajemi na lahaja mbalimbali za ki-Bantu.

·        Kwa kiasi kikubwa, lugha mpya ya mseto ilikuwa ni upotoshaji wa lugha ya Kiarabu na Kiajemi.

·        Mwarabu au Mu-Ajemi alikuwa muumini wa dini ya Uislamu.

·        Umo humo, vizalia hawa wakayaingiza maneno ya Kiarabu, Kishirazi na Kihindi katika hii lugha mpya.

·        Pamoja na kuyaingiza maneno ya kigeni, lugha-mpya yao hii (Kiswahili), ilikithiri vionjo vingi vya lugha mbali mbali za ki-Bantu.

·        Ndipo baadaye, lughampya yao hii ikajulikana au kuitwa Kiswahili.

·        Kwa maoni ya wataalamu hawa, sehemu mbili kati ya tano (2/5) ya maneno yanayotumika katika lugha hii mpya ni ya ki-Bantu.

·        Sarufi ya lugha mpya hii ni mseto wa ki-Bantu (chenye utata na kisicho na mpangilio maalumu) pamoja na Kiarabu (chenye mantiki na kilichokomaa).

           

Kundi la pili la wataalamu wa nadharia hii, B. Krumm na F. Johnson lina mawazo yanayodai kwamba:

·        Kiswahili kilitokana na visiwa vya Lamu, Kilamu/Kiamu.

·        Wageni kutoka Ghuba ya Ushirazi/Uajemi na Arabia ya Kusini walikuja katika Pwani ya Afrika ya Mashariki na lugha tofauti.

·         Lakini kutokana na kuoana kwao na wenyeji, wageni hawa wakaichukua lugha ya hapo walipofikia, wakaikuza kwa maneno kadhaa na sentensi kadhaa kutoka lugha zao za asili, yaani Kiarabu, Kiajemi na Kihindi hususan katika masuala ya  biashara, ubaharia, vyombo vya kazi zao na nguo.

·        Aidha,  utumwa na tabia ya kuoa wake wengi ilisaidia kutoa kundi kubwa la masuria. Hali hii ikaondosha hisia za ugeni katika lugha zao; na maneno yote yakabatizwa kuwa ya ki-Bantu, na hata kupoteza kabisa sura ya ugeni.

 

   Kiswahili ni Kiarabu

Kuna hoja kuu tatu ambazo baadhi ya wananadharia hii huzitumia kutetea nadharia hii kuwa Kiswahili asili yake ni Kiarabu.

(i)          Inadaiwa kuwa maneno yenye asili ya Kiarabu yaliyomo katika Kiswahili ni ishara tosha kwamba lugha hii ilianza kama Pijini ya Kiarabu.

(ii)       Inahusu neno lenyewe Kiswahili ambalo asili yake ni Kiarabu. Neno Kiswahili linatokana na neno “sahili” (umoja) na “swahil” (wingi) lina maana ya pwani.

(iii)     Inadaiwa kwamba kwa kuwa Kiswahili kilianza pwani, kwa kuwa idadi kubwa sana ya wenyeji wa pwani ni waislamu, na kwa kuwa uisilamu uliletwa na Waarabu, basi Kiswahili nacho kililetwa na Waarabu.

   Kiswahili si Kiarabu

Madai kwamba Kiswahili si Kiarabu yanathibitishwa na hoja kinzani zifuatazo: 

Tukianza na dai la kwanza ‘kwamba maneno yenye asili ya Kiarabu yaliyomo katika Kiswahili ni ishara tosha kwamba lugha hii ilianza kama pijini ya Kiarabu’ tunaona wazi kwamba madai haya hayana mashiko. Lugha ya Kiswahili imetokea kuwa na maneno ya mkopo yenye asili ya Kiarabu (na kwa hakika yapo yenye asili ya Kiajemi, Kireno, Kihindi, Kijerumani, Kiingereza nk.) kutokana na ukweli kwamba kulikuwa na mawasiliano ya karne na karne baina ya wenyeji wa pwani na wafanyabiashara wa Kiarabu. Wasemaji wa lugha mbili tofauti wanapokutana hawaachi kuathiriana kilugha. Kwa hiyo lugha kuwa na maneno mengi ya mkopo kutoka lugha nyingine, haifanyi lugha hiyo isemekane kuwa imetokana na hiyo lugha nyingine.

Pili wataalamu hawa wanadai kwamba neno lenyewe Kiswahili lina maana ya Kiarabu.

Kwani linatokana na neno “sahili” (umoja) na “swahil” (wingi) lina maana ya pwani. Hapa ingetupasa tuelewe kwamba kila mtu binafsi au jamii binafsi aghalabu hajiiti mwenyewe jina lake, yeye huitwa kwa hilo jina alilopewa na wengine: Jamii yake au wageni waliomtembelea kwake. Na hivi ndivyo ilivyojitokeza kwa upande wa jamii ya watu wa pwani ya Afrika mashariki, yaani Waswahili,  walipotembelewa na Waarabu na kuitwa As-Sahilyy au As-Sawahiliyy, na nchi yao kuitwa sahil (wingi wake Sawahil), yaani pwani (upwa), ufuo. Kwa mantiki hii, dai hili halina mashiko !

Kigezo cha dini nacho hakikubaliki lugha haiwi lugha kwa sababu ya imani. Hata hivyo lugha ya Kiarabu yenyewe ilikuwepo karne nyingi kabla ya kufunuliwa dini ya Uislamu. Hali kadhalika, lugha nyingine za Kimagharibi zilikuwepo karne nyingi kabla ya kufunuliwa imani ya ukristo. Kama ilivyo kwamba Kiingereza au Kijerumani si ukristo, basi ndivyo vivi hivyo ilivyo kwamba Kiswahili hakiwezi kuwa dini ya uislamu, aslan! Wala Kiarabu nacho si uislamu. Tunachoweza kufanya ni kuitumia lugha kuifasili dini, lakini hatuwezi kuitumia dini kuifasili lugha.

 

  Kiswahili ni Kibantu

Vipengele vinavyotumika katika kuihalalisha nadharia inayodai kwamba Kiswahili ni Kibantu ni ushahidi wa ki-Isimu, ushahidi wa ki-Historia na kuichunguza lugha ya Kiswahili katika mfumo mzima wa historia ya mgawanyiko wa kusambaa kwa lugha za ki-Bantu. Wataalamu wa nadharia hii wanahitimisha kwa kudai kwamba Kiswahili ni mojawapo kati  ya lugha katika jamii kubwa ya lugha za ki-Bantu.

Baadhi ya wataalamu muhimu wanaoiunga mkono nadharia hii ni Prof. Malcon Guthrie, Dkt. C. Meinholf na Dkt. C. Rohl na Prof. Clement Maganga.

Profesa Malcom Guthrie ni mtaalamu (mwanaisimu) mashuhuri kutoka Chuo Kikuu cha London, Uingereza. Alitumia miaka 20 kuchunguza uhusiano uliopo baina ya lugha za Kibantu zilizoko katika eneo lote ambalo hukaliwa na wabantu. Sehemu hii ni ile ambayo inajulikana kama Afrika, Kusini mwa Jangwa la Sahara.

Alifanya uchunguzi wa mashina/mizizi (viini) ya maneno 22,000 kutoka lugha 200 za Kibantu. Katika uchunguzi wake alikuta mizizi (mashina) 2,300 imezagaa       katika lugha mbalimbali za Kibantu na Kiswahili kikiwemo. Mashina/mizizi 500           yalilingana katika lugha zote 200. Mashina haya yalipatikana katika lugha zote za Kibantu. Mashina haya yalikuwa ya asili moja. Baadhi ya lugha hizo 200 zilizofanyiwa uchunguzi Kiswahili kilionesha kuitikia ulinganifu sawa na Kikongo kwa asilimia arubaini na nne (44%).

Katika kuchunguza ni asilimia ngapi za mashina hayo 500 yaliyomo katika kila lugha, mgawo uliojitokeza ulikuwa kama ifuatavyo:

Kiwemba kizungumzwacho Zambia         -           54%

Kiluba kizungumzwacho Katanga             -           51%

**Kikongo kizungumzwacho Zaire           -           44%**

**Kiswahili kizungumzwacho Afrika Mashariki            44%**

Kisukuma kizungumzwacho Tanzania                 41%

Kiyao kizungumzwacho Tanzania/Msumbiji -   35%

Sotho kizungumzwacho Botswana                        -           20%

*Kirundi kizungumzwacho Burundi         -           43%*

Kinyoro kizungumzwacho Uganda           -           37%

Kizulu kizungumzwacho Afrika Kusini   -           29%

Baada ya kupata matokeo haya, Profesa Malcom Guthrie anaiunga mkono nadharia hii ya kwamba Kiswahili ni ki-Bantu kwa kudai kwamba:

(i)     Kiswahili kilikuwepo kabla ya ujio wa wageni;

(ii)    Anaonyesha kwamba Kiswahili kina uhusiano mkubwa na lugha za Kibantu;

(iii)  Mwisho anasema Kiswahili kilianzia Pwani ya Afrika Mashariki.

           

Dkt. C. Meinholf na Dkt. C. Rohl: Wataalamu hawa wanaamini kwamba:

(i)                Wakati wa utawala wa Shirazi katika upwa wa mashariki ya Afrika kulikuwa na kabila la Waswahili;

(ii)             Kabila hili ni dhuria ya Wazaramo wa leo.

(iii)           Kwa kuwa hawa Wazaramo walikuwa wamezaliwa katika harakati za kibiashara, kwa hivyo wakafuata nyayo za wazazi wao.

(iv)           Lugha yao ilikuwa ya aina ya ki-Bantu.

(v)              Kwa kuwa Wabantu ni wengi zaidi kuliko jamii ya makabila mengine, lugha yao ya Kiswahili ikaanza kutumika na kuenea katika makabila mengine, hususan katika ukanda wa pwani ya Afrika Mashariki.

(vi)           Baadaye, Waswahili hawa hawa wakafanya biashara na wageni waliokuja kuvinjari Afrika Mashariki, hususan Waarabu, Washirazi, Wamalaysia, Wahindi na Wareno ambao tayari walikuwa wamefurika katika pwani hii ya Afrika Mashariki miaka kadhaa kabla.

(vii)         Vifaa na majina ya vitu vya biashara vya wageni hao vikaselelea na kuingizwa katika mfumo wa lugha hiyo ya Waswahili ambayo ni ki-Bantu.

Madai ya nadharia hii yakichunguzwa, tunagundua kwamba inazingatia mitazamo miwili yaani, mtazamo wa ki-Isimu na mtazamo wa ki-Historia. Kwa mantiki hii, nadharia hii inaelekea kukubalika na wataalamu wengi kuwa ndiyo sahihi kuhusu asili au historia ya Kiswahili.

Profesa C. Maganga, na uthibitisho wake kwamba Kiswahili ni ki-Bantu. Kama tulivyoona, lugha ya Kiswahili ilifanyiwa utafiti na uchambuzi na wanataaluma kadhaa kwa madhumuni ya kuiainisha kama ilikuwa yenye misingi ya ki-Bantu au la. Prof. Maganga alifanya uchambuzi wa ki-Isimu na wa ki-Historia kuhusu lugha hii. Matokeo ya utafiti wake wa ki-Isimu kuhusu lugha ya Kiswhili (au lugha kwa ujumla) unadhihirisha mambo mengi, mojawapo ni asili ya lugha hiyo. Amethibitisha kwamba Kiswahili ni lugha ya Kibantu; na kwa hivyo, kuthibitisha kwa ushahidi thabiti hoja ya Dkt. C. Meinholf na Dkt. C. Rohl kama  tulivyoieleza hapo juu. 

(i)        Ushahidi wa Kiisimu

(a)      Msamiati

Matokeo ya utafiti alioufanya kuhusu msamiati wa Kiswahili ulibaini kwamba 60% ya maneno yote yanayoweza kuandikwa na kutamkika katika lugha ya Kiswahili asili yake ni lugha za Kibantu, 30% ni lugha ya Kiarabu na 10% ni lugha nyingine za kigeni kama vile Kiingereza, Kireno, Kijerumani, Kihindi, Kiajemi, Kifaransa, nk. Kinyume chake ni kwamba msamiati wa Kiswahili na ule wa Kibantu hautofautiani.

Mfano:

            Kiswahili   Kindali  Kizigua   Kijita   Kikurya   Kindendeule          

            Mtu          Umundu    Mntu       Omun      Omontu      Mundu

            Maji         Amashi      Manzi     Amanji    Amanche    Maache

            Moto        Umulilo     Moto        Omulilo   Omoro        Mwoto

 (b)      Tungo (Sentesi) za Kiswahili

Miundo ya tungo (sentesi) za maneno ya Kiswahili zinafanana sana na miundo ya tungo za maneno ya ki-Bantu. Sentesi za Kiswahili na za lugha za ki-Bantu zina kiima  na kiarifu. 

Mfano:

Lugha za Kibantu               Kiima                         kiarifu

Kiswahili                               Juma                           anakula ugali.

Kizigua                                  Juma                           adya ugali.

Kisukuma                              Juma                           alelya bugali

Kindali                                   Juma                           akulya            ubbugali.

Kijita                                      Juma                           kalya  ubusima.

Kindendeule                         Juma                           ilye ughale.

 (c)      Ngeli za Majina

Wanataalamu wanakubaliana kuhusu ngeli za majina kwa mujibu wa:

maumbo ya nomino (umoja na wingi wa majina) pamoja; na

upatanisho wa kisarufi katika sentesi.

Kigezo cha maumbo ya majina: Kigezo hiki hufuata maumbo ya umoja na uwingi katika kuyaainisha majina. Majina yaliyo mengi katika lugha ya Kiswahili na lugha za ki-Bantu hufuata mkondo wa umoja na uwingi. Majina ya lugha ya Kiswahili na lugha za ki-Bantu yaliyo mengi yana maumbo dhahiri ya umoja na uwingi.

Mfano:

Lugha za Kibantu               Umoja                        Wingi

Kiswahili                               mtu                 -           watu

                                                mtoto              -           watoto

Kikurya                                  omanto           -           banto (abanto)

                                                omona                        -           bana    (abana)

Kizigua                                  mntu               -           bhantu

                                                mwana            -           bhana

Kindali                                   mundu            -           bhandu

                                                mwana            -           bhana

Kindendeule                         mundu            -           βhandu

                                                mwana            -           βhana

Kigezo cha upatanisho wa kisarufi katika sentesi: Katika kigezo hiki tunaangalia uhusiano uliopo kati ya kiima (jina na viambishi awali vya nafsi) na vivumishi katika vitenzi vya Kiswahili na ki-Bantu. Vivumishi, majina pamoja na viambishi hivyo vya vitenzi hubadilika kutokana na maumbo ya umoja na uwingi.

Mfano:

Lugha za Kibantu      Umoja                     -                       Wingi

Kiswahili                      Baba analima         -                       Baba wanalima

Kindali                          Utata akulima        -                       Abbatata bbakulima

Kikurya                         Tata ararema          -                       Batata(Tata)bararema

Kijita                             Tata kalima                        -                       Batata abalima

Kindendeule                Tate ilima               -                       Akatate βhilima

(d)       Vitenzi vya Kiswahili na Kibantu

Kuna uhusiano mkubwa sana kati ya vitenzi vya Kiswahili na vile vya lugha zingine za ki-Bantu. Vipengele vinavyothibitisha uhusiano huu ni: Viambishi, mnyumbuliko, pamoja na mwanzo au mwisho wa vitenzi, kama ifuatavyo:

Viambishi: vitenzi vya lugha ya Kiswahili na vya lugha zingine za ki-Bantu hujengwa na mzizi (kiini) pamoja na viambishi vyake vya awali na vya tamati.

Mfano:

Kiswahili       -           analima          =          a – na – lim -  a

Kiikuyu          -           arerema          =          a  –  re –  rem–a

Kindali           -           akulima          =            a  - ku  –  lim – a

                                                                          1  -  2   -  3  -  4

Sherehe:

1   -     Kiambishi awali kipatanishi cha nafsi.

2   -     Kiambishi awali cha njeo (wakati uliopo).

3   -     Mzizi/Kiini.

4   -     Kiambishi tamati.

Mnyambuliko wa vitenzi: Mnyumbuliko wa vitenzi vya Kiswahili hufanana na ule wa vitenzi vya lugha za ki-Bantu.

Mfano:         

Kiswahili       -           kucheka         -           kuchekesha   -           kuchekelea.

Kindali           -           kuseka            -           kusekasha      -           kusekelela.

Kibena           -           kuheka           -           kuhekesha     -           kuhekelea.

Kinyamwezi  -           kuseka            -           kusekasha      -           kusekelela.

Kikagulu        -           kuseka            -           kusekesha      -           kusekelela

Mwanzo wa vitenzi: Vitenzi  vyote vya Kiswahili na vile vya lugha za ki-Bantu huanza na viambishi ambavyo ni viwakilishi vya nafsi, kama ifuatavyo:

Mfano:

Kiswahili       -           Ni-nakwenda

Kihaya           -           Ni-ngenda

Kiyao             -           N-gwenda

Kindendeule -           Ni-yenda

Mwishilizo wa vitenzi: Vitenzi vya lugha za ki-Bantu na Kiswahili huishia na irabu –a.

Mfano:

Kiswahili       kukimbi-a      -           kuwind-a       -           kushuk-a

Kindali           kukind-a        -           kubhing-a      -           kukol-a

Kisukuma      kupil-a           -           kuhwim-a      -           Kutend-a

Kisunza          kwihuk-a       -           kuhig-a           -           kising-a

Kindendeule kuβhutuk-a    -           kuhwim-a      -           kuhuk-a

tafiti wa Prof. Maganga kuhusu ushahidi wa ki-Isimu wa kuthibitisha kama Kiswahili ni ki-Bantu au la ungeweza kuelezwa kimuhtasari kwa mifano mingine ifuatayo:

Mfano wa 1:

Lugha	Sentesi
Kiswahili Kipare Kindamba Kichaga Kihaya Kikaguru Kindendeule	Jongo Jongo Jongo Jongo Jongo Jongo Jongo	anafuga erisha kafugha nao he n’afuga kachima ifuga	mbuzi mbuji mene mburu embuzi m’ehe mbuhi	kuku nkuku nguku nguku enkoko ngu’ku nguku	na na na na n’ na na	ng’ombe ng’ombe senga. umbe ente nn’ombe ng’ombe

Katika mfano huu inaonekana kwamba mpangilio wa maneno katika sentesi una ufanano kwa sababu katika kila sentesi kuna kiima na kiarifu. Katika kiima kuna nomino, yaani jina la mtenda (Jongo) na katika kiarifu kuna kitendo kinachofanyika na nomino mtendwa. Pia nafasi ya viunganishi ni ile ile kwa lugha zote zilizoonyeshwa katika mfano huu.

Kuna mfano mwingine wa ufanano wa mpangilio huu.

Mfano wa 2:

Lugha	Sentesi
Kiswahili Kihaya Kisukuma Kinyaturu Kipare Kizigua	Sitamkuta kesho Timushangemu nyenkya Natusanga intondo Tumuhanga fadyu Nesikemkiche yavo Sirambila luvi

Katika sentensi hizo mpangilio wa maneno una ufanano kwa sababu kila sentensi ina kiima na kiarifu chenye kitenzi na kielezi. Pia kiambishi cha nafsi cha nomino ya mtenda kinajitokeza mwanzoni mwa neno la kwanza la kila sentesi.

Sitamkuta;     Timushangemu;        Natusanga;                                                                            Tumuhanga;            Nesikamkiche;                      Sitambila.

Viambishi hivyo vya nafsi ya mtenda pia vinaonyesha hali ya ukanushi katka kila sentesi na nafasi yake ni ile ile kwa kila sentesi.

Viambishi vya urejeshi navyo vinajitokeza katika kitenzi cha kila sentesi.

Viambishi {m}, {m}, {ti}, {tu} sitamkuta, timushangemu, natusanga, tumuhanga, nesikamkiche, na sitambwila ni vya urejeshi; vinawakilisha nomino mtendwa.

Kwa hivyo, hali hii inadhihirisha kwamba miundo ya sentensi hizi inafanana na vitenzi vyake vina tabia mbalimbali, kama vile:

(i)        kubeba viambishi vya nafsi, mtenda na mtendwa,

(ii)       kuonyeshga hali ya ukanushi njeo za wakati na kitendo kinachofanyika.

Mfano wa 3:

Lugha	Sentesi
Kiswahili Kizigua Kihaya Kisukuma Kinyaturu Kipare Kindendeule	Akija mwambie anifuate Akeza umugambe anitimile. Kalaija omugambile ampondele Ulu nahali anikubije Newaja mwele ang’onge. Ekiza umti aniratere Anda ahikite n’nongerera angobhekeraye

Katika sentesi hizo inaonekana kwamba sentesi zote zinafanana  kimpangilio. Pia maneno yake yanakubali uambishaji, kwa mfano:

(i)        Katika maneno ya mwanzo:

            akija, akeza. kalaija, akuja, newaja, ekiza, herufi zilizopigiwa vistari ni viambishi vya nafsi vinawakilisha dhana ya mtenda.

(ii)       Vivyo hivyo katika maneno:

anifuate, ampondele, anitimile, ang’nge, aniratere, angobhekeraye, viambishi vilivyoko katika viarifu vya sentesi hizo vinawakilisha nafsi za watenda.

(iii)     Pia vitenzi vya sentesi hizo vina tabia ya kubeba virejeshi vya nafsi kama ilivyo katika, mwambie, omugambile, nahali,mbwele na umti, vinaonyesha njeo na hali ya uyakinifu- hali inayoonyesha ufanano wa maumbo ya maneno.

(iv)      Licha ya kuwa na mpangilio unaofanana na wa lugha nyingine za kibantu, kwa mfano, katika mifano tuliyoiona hapo juu, baadhi ya maneno yanafanana: tazama maneno:

            kafugha (Kindamba); nafuga  (Kihaya);

            nifuga (Kindendeule); anafuga  (Kiswahili).

Pia maneno:

            nkuku  (Kipare);                   nguku (Kindamba);

            nguku   (Kichaga);               enkoko  (Kihaya);

            ng’uku   (Kikaguru);                        nguku(Kindendeule);

            nguku    (Kindendeule)

Katika mfano wa 3, maneno yafuatayo yana ufanano:

Akeza  (Kizigua);                kalaija   (Kihaya);    alize  (Kisukuma),

newaja  (Kinyaturu);           ekiza   (Kipare);       anda ahikite,... (Kindendeule);

akija,  (Kiswahili.)

Pia maneno;

umugambe   (Kizigua);        omugambile  (Kihaya);       unongeraye (Kindendeule);  na mwambie (Kiswahili).

Ufanano huu wa msamiati, maumbo ya maneno pamoja na wa mpangilio wa maneno katika sentesi, vyote vinathibistisha kwamba lugha ya Kiswahili ni ya kibantu kama zilivyo nyingi nyinginezo.

 

(ii)    Ushahidi wa Kihistoria Kwamba Kiswahili ni Kibantu

Baada ya kuangalia ushahidi wa kiisimu kuhusu asili ya Kiswahili, katika sehemu hii Maganga (1997) aliendelea kuchambua ushahidi wa Kihistoria unaothibitisha kuwa lugha ya Kiswahili ilizungumzwa katika upwa wa Afrika Mashariki hata kabla ya ujio wa wageni kama vile Waarabu na Wazungu. Ushahidi huu ulitolewa na wageni mbalimbali waliofika hapa Afrika Mashariki. Wote wanathibitisha kuwa lugha ya Kiswahili ilizungumzwa hapa Afrika Mashariki kabla ya ujio wa wageni.

(a)    Ugunduzi wa Ali-Idris (1100-1166)

Ugunduzi huu yasemekana ulifanywa huko Sicily yapata mwaka 1100-1166. Kwenye mahakama ya mfalme Roger II. Licha ya kufahamika kuwa Kiswahili, kilipata kuandikwa kabla ya 10BK. Ali-Idris alikuwa wa kwanza kugundua jina la zamani la Zanzibar kuwa ni Unguja. Katika maelezo yake anaandika pia majina kama vile kikombe, mkono wa tembo, muriani, na kisukari, ambayo ni ya ndizi mbalimbali zilizokuwa zikipatikana huko.

(b)    Ushahidi wa Marco Polo

Huyu ni mzungu ambaye alijishughulisha sana na masuala mbalimbali ya kijiografia na alisafiri sehemu nyingi duniani. Marco Polo aliandika hivi:

“Zanzibari ni kisiwa kizuri ambacho kina ukubwa wa mzunguko wa maili 200. Watu wote wanaabudu (Mungu), wana Mfalme na wanatumia lugha yao, na hawalipi kodi (ushuru) kwa mtu.” Safari za Marco Polo 1958:301

Marco Polo anasemekana aliandika pia kitabu cha jiografia ambacho hakikupata kuchapishwa lakini sehemu zake zimepata kufasiriwa kwa Kirusi na Kifaransa. Mfano mmojawapo ni huu unaofuata:

“Katika visiwa vya Sjawaga vilivyoshughulikiwa katika sura hii, ni kile kisiwa cha Andjaba ambacho mji wake mkuu unaitwa katika lugha ya kwao. Zanguabar/Ungudya, na wakazi wake, japokuwa ni mchanganyiko, kwa sasa wengi wao ni Waislam…chakula chao kikuu kikiwa ndizi. Kuna aina tano ambazo zinajulikana kama kundi, fili, ambazo uzito wake waweza kuwa wakia 12, Omani, Marijani, Sukari....”

Maelezo haya ya Marco Polo yanathibitisha mambo ya msingi kuhusu wakazi wa Pwani ya Afrika ya Mashariki na lugha yao; mintarafu ya dini, chakula na utamaduni wao kwa ujumla.

(c)    Ushahidi wa Al-Masudi (915 BK)

Katika moja ya maandiko yake, Al-Masudi anazungumzia juu ya wakazi wa mwambao ambao walijulikana kwa jina la “wazanji”. Kwa dhana hii, neno Zanzibar linatokana na Zenzibar yaani “Pwani ya Zenji”. Katika maelezo yake Al-Masudi anaonyesha kwamba Wazenji walikuwa  “Watawala Wakilimi” ambao waliaminiwa kuwa walitawala kwa nguvu za Mungu. Kuna maelezo kuwa huenda neno “wakilimi” lina maana ya “wafalme”. Al-Masudi alisisitiza katika maelezo yake kuwa Wazenji walisema lugha kwa ufasaha na walikuwa na viongozi waliowahutubia kwa lugha yao. Kutokana na neno “zenji” kuna uwezekano kuwa kabla ya majilio ya Waarabu, Kiswahili kiliitwa “Kiazania” au “Kizanji” na wageni waliofika pwani.

(d)     Ushahidi wa Ki- Historia wa Mji wa Kilwa

Kimsingi habari zinazoeleza historia ya mji wa Kilwa katika karne ya 10-16BK zinataja majina ya utani kama vile: mkoma watu, nguo nyingi, nk. ambayo walipewa Masultani wa kwanza wa Kilwa Ali Ibn Hussein na mwanae Mohamedi Ibn Ali. Kutokana na habari hizi huenda lugha ya Kiswahili ilishaanza kusemwa mnamo karne ya 10 au ya 11 BK. Maelezo ya kihistoria yanaeleza juu ya Sultani aliyeitwa Talt Ibin Al Husaini ambaye alipewa jina la utani “Hasha Hazifiki”.

 (e)      Utenzi wa Fumo Liyongo (13 BK) kama Ushahidi

Shairi la zamani kabisa lililopata kuandikwa la Kiswahili, linalojulikana ni lile la Utenzi wa Fumo Liyongo. Utenzi huu inasemekana uliandikwa karne ya 13BK. Kuweko kwa shairi hili kunadhihirisha kuwako kwa lugha ya Kiswahili kabla ya karne hiyo, na kwa hivyo, huenda Kiswahili kilianza kutumika kabla ya karne ya 10BK. Baadhi ya beti za utenzi wa Fumo Liyongo ni hizi zifuatazo:

Ubeti  6:         Liyongo Kitamkali,

                        Akabalighi vijali

                        Akawa mtu wa kweli

                        Na hiba huongeya.

Ubeti 7:          Kilimo kama mtukufu

                        Mpana sana mrefu

                        Majimboni yu maarufu

                        Watu huja kwangaliya.

Ubeti 10:        Sultani pate Bwana

                        Papo nae akanena

                        Wagala mumemwona

                        Liyongo kiwatokeya.

(Kutoka E.A. Swahili Committee 1973)

Lugha hii ndio mfano wa lugha iliyokuwa ikitumika kunako karne ya 13BK. Ni wazi kuwa lugha hiyo ilianza kusemwa mapema kabla ya muda huo. Hoja za kihistoria inaelezea historia ya lugha ya Kiswahili toka karne ya 10BK hadi karne ya 18BK. Kutokana na ushahidi huu ni dhahiri kuwa asili ya lugha ya Kiswahili ni Wabantu wa Afrika ya Mashariki.

MAREJEO

Maganga (1997), OSW 102: Historia ya Kiswahili. Chuo Kikuu Huria cha Tanzania.

Masebo, J. A. Nyengwine, N. (2002), Nadharia ya Lugha ya Kiswahili, Kidato cha 5 na 6.  Aroplus Industries Ltd: Dar es Salaam.

Nkwera, Fr. F. V. (2003), Sarufi, Fasihi na Uandishi wa Vitabu, Sekondari na Vyuo. Creative Prints Ltd: Dar es Salaam.