CIVICS NOTES FORM ONE - OUR NATION

CIVICS NOTES
FORM ONE-TOPIC ONE
OUR NATION
Prepared by Sir.Albert J.Safari
Mobile contact:+255 715 803 005
Mail Address:salbertode@
yahoo.com

When two people of the opposite sex get together as husband and wife, they form a family. A family is social group of people who are closely related to each other. A combination of various families forms a Clan. A group of different clans form tribes who have the same Culture, History and Language. The combination of various tribes makes up the population of a nation.

A Nation can be defined as alarge group or community of people living in a defined geographical area and sharing a common history, culture and language under one government. Examples of nations includeTanzania, Japan, Zimbabwe, India and Uganda. A nation should be recognized by other nations as a sovereign state andshould be free to decide and implement its own policies. It should not be part of another nation nor should it be under the control of another nation.

The Components of our Nation

The Components that Make up our Nation

To be able to analyse the components that make up our nation

For any nation to be recognized as a nation it must have the following components: Sovereignty, People, culture, boundaries and government

Sovereignty

The word “Sovereignty” comes from the Latin word “superanus”, which means “supreme”. Therefore, Sovereignty refers tothe supreme power exercised by anation to control all individuals and associations within itsterritory.

Sovereignty can also be defined as the highest power which belongs to the people. National sovereignty means that a nation is free to decide and implement its decisions without being interfered with by any external forces from other nations. A nation should be able to run its political, economic and social matters independently.

Importance of National sovereignty

• National sovereignty is important because it maintains good relations with other nations through promoting good foreign policies on matters concerning other nations.
• It helps maintain peace and security of a nation through execution of national laws, rules and regulations to prevent civil wars and conflicts with other nations.
• It brings about national stability and encourages investors to invest in a country because a national is free to establish policies that will encourage local and foreign investors to invest in the country.
• Citizens are free from being dominated by other nations because of non-interference in the control of the nation by other countries.

Hindrances to national sovereignty

• Poverty. This is the inability to afford basic needs like food, shelter and clothing which is the main problem faced in many African countries whereby most are economically poor. This results in African countriesdepending on developed countries for help through grants and aid which create conditions that violate the sovereignty of some African countries.
• Civil wars. The fighting between ethnic groups within the same nation can affect the freedom of the nation because when the nation fails to maintain peace and security within the nation, United Nations will intervene to protect human rights.
• Natural hazards. Disasters such as floods, earthquakes and volcanic erruptions undermine the economies of poor countries which in turn hinders national sovereignty since the government cannot depend on its own capabilities and needs toask for assistance from other countries through aid.

Population

Population is the number of people living in a particular defined area. According to the 2010 population survey report, Tanzania has over 40 million people. More than 80% of Tanzania's population lives in rural areas. Tanzania mainland has over 125 ethnic groups. Kiswahili is the common language and the largest population group is Bantu who occupy approximately two-thirds of the country and are divided into many tribes. Within the population is where we can find leaders, citizens and the army which protects the country and builds up a strong nation.

Boundaries

National boundaries are the dividing lines between the area belonging to Tanzania and the area belonging to her neighboring countries. Tanzania was formed on the 26th April 1964. On that day, Tanganyika and Zanzibar united to form thecountry currently known asTanzania. Our country Tanzania covers a total area of 945,202 square kilometersand is bordered by man-made and natural boundaries. Natural boundaries of Tanzania includethe Indian Ocean to the East, Mount Kilimanjaro to the North, Ruvuma River to the South, Lake Nyasa to the south west, and Lake Victoria to the North and Lake Tanganyika to the West.

Tanzania is bordered by eight nations, namely Kenya and Uganda to the North, Rwanda, Burundi and Democratic Republic of Congo to the West, Mozambique to the South, Malawi and Zambia to the South West. The Indian Ocean borders Tanzanian’s Eastern side. The islands of Zanzibar and Pemba lie along the coast of Tanzania Mainland.

Map of Tanzania showing the national boundaries.

The Government

The government is an administrative organ of the state. It consists of elected and selected groups of people who are responsible for controlling and maintaining the laws and orders of acountry. The state has three organs which assist each other in fulfilling its functions. These organs are:

1. The Executive.The Executive is the main branch of the central government andcomprises of the president, the cabinet, civil servants and armed forces. The Executive is responsible for administering various activities of the government.
2. Judiciary. Thisorgan functions to interpret the laws and make rulings over disputes in the state.
3. Legislature is the law making body of the state. It is the state organ whose members are elected to represent different constituencies. Some of them are appointed. Legislature is also called parliament and is comprised of the President and the National Assembly. The President is part of the parliament but not a member of the parliament. This is because the president does not participate in parliamentary discussions but participates in the process of making laws by signing the bills to become laws.

Culture

Refers to the customs and beliefs of a particular group of people. It also includes the people`s way of life and social organization.

Exercise 1

Answer the following questions

1. In your own words, explain what you understand by the term Nation and give five examples of the nations you know apart from the examples given above.
2. Suggest five solutions to protect national sovereignty.
3. Draw the map of Tanzania and show its national boundaries.
4. Why is the President of the United Republic of Tanzania said to be part of the parliament but not the member of it in the national assembly?
5. List five national components.

The National Symbols

Tanzania's National Symbols

Identify Tanzania's national symbols

What is a national symbol?

A symbol is a sign that represents something. National symbols are signs which represent a nation. These symbols are very important as they serve as a reminder of our nationhood to us and to the rest of the world; they promote our culture and remind us about events that have taken place in our nation. Tanzania has several symbols; these include tangible things like money, flags and the coat of arms,as well asintangible things like the national anthem and language.

The following are the major national symbols in Tanzania:

1. The national flag
2. Presidential standard
3. The coat of arms
4. National Anthem
5. Uhuru Torch
6. National currency
7. National Language
8. The national Constitution
9. National festivals (holidays) in Tanzania

The Significance of each National Symbol

Explain the significance of each national symbol

The national flag

Anational flag is a piece of cloth with a special colour design. The national flag of Tanganyika was hoisted for the first time on the 9th December, 1961 and that of the United Republic of Tanzania was hoisted for the first time on the 26th April 1964, when Tanganyika and Zanzibar united to form Tanzania. The main function of the national Flag is to show that Tanzania is a completely independent and sovereign nation. Our Flag has four colors; Green, Yellow, Black and Blue.

1. Green represents the land and vegetation of Tanzania
2. Blue represents the ocean and other water bodies found in the country
3. Black represents the people of Tanzania
4. Yellow represent the natural wealth of Tanzania, like minerals

Tanzanian’s national flag.

Importance of national flag

1. It is a symbol of our independence/sovereignty
2. It is a symbol of freedom and unity of the people
3. The National flag is also a symbol of the nationality and a symbol of Tanzania culture

Presidential standard

The presidential standard is a flag which is used during official ceremonies where the president is in attendance. It has a green background with a blue and the coat of arms in the middle. The coat of arms on the presidential standard has no crops, human figure or the peak of Mount Kilimanjaro.

The Presidential standard

The coat of arms

The coat of arms is an official seal or stamp of the government which comprises different colors and landmarks of Tanzania. It act as national badge and, therefore, all government publications bear this official seal. Our coat of arms has twelve components. These components represent various national interests such as state power, economic bases, national culture and history.

Compositions of the coat of arms

The coat of arms comprises of the following things:

1. Two human figures – The man and the woman represent the people of Tanzania. The two figures also symbolize the need for cooperation between men and women in order to bring about development.
2. Two elephant tusks – These represent our national heritage in terms of wildlife. Tanzania has beautiful national parks and game reserves in which different animals and plants are found in their natural habitats.
3. Shield and spears – They represent weapons that were used by Tanzanians to resist colonialism. These weapons represent the readiness of the people to defend their independence
4. Golden band on the upper part of the shield - This represent the mineral wealth of the country
5. Uhuru Torch – It symbolizes freedom, enlightenment, knowledge and prosperity.
6. National Flag –It represent our sovereignty.
7. Red band on the shield- this represent the fertile red soil found in our country
8. Crossed Axe and hoe – These represent the tools which Tanzanians use to develop their country.
9. Sea waves – These represent water bodies found in Tanzania. Approximately 62,000Km square of Tanzanian`s total area is made up of water bodies. This includes the Indian Ocean, rivers, lakes and swamps.
10. Peak of mount Kilimanjaro- This is the highest mount in Tanzania and Africa in general which represents attractive geomorphological features.
11. Crops (cotton and gloves) – At the feet of the man there is a branch of a glove tree. At the feet of the women there is the branch of cotton plant which stands for the cash crops produced in Tanzania.
12. The wards “Uhuru na Umoja” which means freedom and unity express the belief that, Tanzanian`s strength depends on people`s solidarity.

Importance of the coat of arms

1. It is used as the symbol of the authority and official government seal.
2. It symbolizes our national culture and history.
3. It symbolizes state power.

The national coat of arms

National Anthem

This is the official song which reflects people`s national feelings, desire, glory and pride in their nationality. The Tanzanian national anthem is sung during important national occasions such as when a special announcement is made by the president; when foreign heads of states visit our country; When the president or the vice president and the prime minister visit another country officially, and when our national teams are playing against teams of other countries; before and after the president addresses the nation; and when the national flag is hoisted.

Importance of the national anthem

• It is a symbol of our nationality , freedom and it unifies Tanzanians
• It makes citizens feel proud of their country
• National anthem expresses a sense of belonging to Tanzania and Africa
• It identifies Tanzania outside the country.

Uhuru Torch

This is the touch of freedom which also known as independence touch introduced by the first president of Tanzania Mwl. J.K.Nyerere as a symbol of freedom, unity, love, dignity, solidarity and hope among Tanzanians. It was first lit on top of Mount Kilimanjaro at midnight on 9th December 1961. This was the day Tanganyika got independence from Britain.

Importance of Uhuru Torch

1. It symbolizes freedom and light
2. It promotes unity in the country
3. It also promotes peace, dignity, respect and hope among Tanzanians
4. It promotes co-operation among Tanzanians and development in aspects of life

The Uhuru Torch

National currency

Is the system of money that a country uses. Our national currency is the Tanzanian shilling. Currency is also called money. Money is used for measuring value, trading and paying for goods and services in a country. Tanzania money is the form of notes and coins.

Importance of national currency

1. It acts as a medium of exchange in trade transactions that is selling and buying of goods and services in the country
2. It is used to measure value and identify the nationality and freedom of a nation
3. It is the means of settling debts.

National Language

This is the language spoken by all the people within a country. The national language of Tanzania is Kiswahili.

Importance of the national language

1. The national language acts as the media of communication within a county.
2. It symbolizes the culture of the nation concerned which is Tanzania
3. It unifies people with a common history.
4. It also identifies the country internationally

The National Constitution

A national constitution is the system of laws and principles by which the nation is governed by. A constitution provides guidelines which society must follow. Our country Tanzania is ruled according to the constitution that was enacted 1977. Since that time year, it has been undergoing some amendments to suit the contemporary needs.

Importance of the national constitution

1. The government rules by the will of the people through the constitution
2. The constitution is the basic law from which all other laws are created.
3. Under constitution there is separation of power between the executive, the legislature and the judiciary.
4. The constitution provides for elections through which the people elect their representatives in the government
5. The constitution gives people the freedom to enjoy their right.
6. The constitution provides individuals with the mechanism to claim their rights before the courts of law.

The cover of the constitution of Tanzania 1977

Tanzania's National Festivals and their Significance

Identify Tanzania's national festivals and their significance

National festivals are special public days created by the state which exempt people from doing any government or official work and therefore people are expected to rest. In Tanzania these days are called Public holidays.

Types of national days

Religious public days

These days are marked by special religious events or festivals according to the beliefs and faith of particular group of people. In Tanzania there are two dominant religious, namely Christianity and Islamic. The public holidays associated with these religious are;

1. Christmas day - falls on 25th December each year
2. Easter holiday – depends on Christian calendar
3. Eid-el-Fitri and Eid –el-Haj – Depend on Islamic calendar and sighting of the moon
4. Boxing day – Falls on 26th December each year

Political public holidays

These are special days that commemorate events which have profound meaning politically. Sometimes they are known as civic national festivals and holidays Political public holidays in Tanzania are;

1. Independence day – falls on December 9th each year
2. Union day – fall on 26th April each year
3. NaneNane day – Falls on 8th August each year
4. Zanzibar Revolution Day – falls on 12th January each year
5. Nyerere Day – falls on 14th October each year
6. Karume Day – falls on 7th April each year
7. Sabasaba Day – falls on 7th July each year

Universal public days

These are special days for the rest and celebration for all people in the world. These universal holidays are;

1. New Year – falls on 1st January each year
2. Workers day/ labour day – falls on 1st May each year

Importance of national festivals/ public days

The followings are the Importance of national festivals/ public days;

1. These days mark important events in our country
2. The celebration keep the history alive since Tanzania are reminded of what has taken place in their country
3. During these events leaders pass important information to the public
4. Public celebration provides an opportunity for citizens to meet and share views, experience and knowledge.
5. Celebrating together enhance the unity of Tanzanians.
6. Annual celebrations impart on Tanzanians the culture of commemorating important national events.
7. These events helps the leaders to identify problems in the society as citizens highlight their problems through speeches, posters, drama or songs.

Exercise 2

Answer the following questions

• With examples mention three types of national festivals in Tanzania
• When do farmers and traders exhibit their agriculture products, implements and machinery?
• What are the importance of national constitution?
• Mention any five compositions of the coat of arms and explain what each component represent.
• Name various occasions you know where the national
• anthem is always sung.
• The Tanzania national flag has four colors:
• Black represents ---------------------
• Yellow represents -------------------
• Blue represents ---------------------
• Green represents --------------------
• Why is it important to respect national symbols?
• Mention three uses of coat of Arms
• Why do you think it is important to have the union government of Tanzania and Zanzibar?
• When the first constitution of the United Republic of Tanzania was written?

CONJUCTIONS

Conjunctions
Prepared by Sir.Albert J.Safari
Mobile contact:+255 715 803 005
Mail Address:salbertode@
yahoo.com

What is a conjunction?

A conjunction is a part of speech that is used to connect words, phrases, clauses, or sentences.

Conjunctions are considered to be invariable grammar particle, and they may or may not stand between items they conjoin.

Types of conjunctions
There are three types of conjunctions :
i. coordinating,
ii. subordinating and
iii. correlative conjunctions.

Coordinating;
Coordinating conjunctions connect two words or groups of words with similar values. They may connect two words, two phrases, two independent clauses or two dependent clauses.

For example, in each of the following sentences the coordinating conjunction “and" connects equal words or groups of words:
Connects two words: John and Reggie stayed up all night practicing their guitars.
Connects two phrases: The squirrel scurried up the tree trunk and onto a low branch.
Connects two clauses: Several managers sat with their backs to us, and I could almost hear them snickering at us lowly workers.

There are only seven coordinating conjunctions in the English language, and they are often remembered by using the acronym “FANBOYS": for, and, nor, but, or, yet and so.

Subordinating
Subordinating conjunctions connect two groups of words by making one into a subordinating clause. The subordinating clause acts as one huge adverb, answering the questions “when" or “why" about the main clause, or imposing conditions or opposition on it.
Here are some examples of subordinating conjunctions changing a clause into adverbial subordinating clauses in different ways:

I can go shopping after I finish studying for my exam. (when)
Because the night was young, Gertrude decided to take a walk. (why)
I’ll give you a dime if you give me a dollar. (condition)
Although he never figured out why, Hanna winked on her way out the door. (opposition)
Note: The subordinating conjunction does not always come between the two clauses it connects. Often, it comes at the beginning of the first clause.

Correlative
Correlative conjunctions are always used in pairs. They are similar to coordinating conjunctions because they join sentence elements that are similar in importance.

The following are some examples of coordinating conjunctions:
Both, and: Both Rodney and Xing made the varsity team this year.
Neither, nor: Neither Rodney nor Xing made the varsity team this year.
Not only, but also: Not only did Rodney make the varsity team, but he also become one of the strongest players.

Conjunction Exercises
The following exercises will help you gain greater understanding about how conjunctions work. Choose the best answer to complete each sentence.
1. My brother loves animals. He just brought a puppy __________ a kitten home with him.
1. But
2. Or
3. Yet
4. And
Answer: 4. My brother loves animals. He just brought a puppy and a kitten home with him.
2. I’d like to thank you ______ the lovely gift.
1. Or
2. For
3. And
4. Yet
Answer: 2. I’d like to thank you for the lovely gift.
3. I want to go for a hike _____ I have to go to work today.
1. But
2. Yet
3. Or
4. For
Answer: 1. I want to go for a hike but I have to go to work today.
4. They do not smoke, _____ do they play cards.
1. And
2. Or
3. Nor
4. Yet
Answer: 3. They do not smoke, nor do they play cards.
5. I’m getting good grades _________ I study every day.
1. Or
2. Yet
3. But
4. Because
Answer: 4. I’m getting good grades because I study every day.

ALOMOFU

Alomofu (kutoka Kiingereza "allomorph") ni msamiati uliotumika kwanza kuelezea mabadiliko ya
muundo wa kikemia. Mwaka 1948 Fatih Şat na Sibel Merve walianza kuutumia upande wa lugha katika kitabu chao Language XXIV.

Dhana yake
Dhana ya alomofu ni dhana inayojadiliwa katika isimu ya lugha.

Dhana hii hujadiliwa sana katika
mofolojia ya lugha yaani, sarufi maumbo .

Kimsingi huwezi kupata dhana kamili na inayoeleweka kama huwezi kuhusianisha alomofu na
mofimu. Ndiyo maana fasili ya alomofu kwa maana ya kikamusi inaweza kuwa:

1. Umbo jingine la mofimu ileile
2. Aina mbalimbali za mofimu moja

Ukiangalia maana hizo mbili za neno alomofu utabaini uhusiano wa neno hilo na mofimu. Yaani huwezi kutaja Alomofu kama huwezi kuhusisha mofimu.

Kwa ujumla, kilugha, dhana ya alomofu huweza kufasirika kama: "Maumbo zaidi ya moja yanayowakilisha mofimu moja kisarufi". Kwa mujibu wa
wanaisimu neno hili limegawanyika kama ifuatavyo:

ALO = Zaidi ya moja
MOFU = Ni kipashio cha kimofolojia kiwakilishacho mofimu.

Mofu ni umbo ambalo huweza kuandikwa watu wanapoandika maneno, pia huweza kutamkwa watu wanapotamka maneno.
Tazama mfano wa maneno yafuatayo:

Mtoto = Neno hili lina mofu mbili, ambazo ni M - toto

Analima = Neno hili lina mofu tatu , ambazo ni: A- na - lim - a

Baba = Neno hili lina mofu moja ambayo ni: Baba

Kumbuka: baadhi ya wanaisimu wanaamini kuwa hata mzizi wa neno ni mofu pia.

Namna ya kuzitambua alomofu
Ukirejea katika mofimu, utakuta mofimu huweza kufanya kazi tofauti katika neno.

Mofimu huweza kudokeza
nafsi , wakati, umoja au wingi wa
nomino na hata kauli mbalimbali za
kitenzi .

Mfano:
Anacheza = A-na-chez-a
Tuliondoka = Tu -li-ondok-a
Wanaita = Wa -na-it-a

Katika mfano huo, mofimu zilizokozwa
wino ni mofimu zinazodokeza nafsi. Kwa hiyo, tunapopata mofimu tofauti, yaani zenye maumbo tofauti lakini zinafanya kazi moja kisarufi huitwa ALOMOFU. Kwa mfano huo, hapo A, Tu na Wa tutaziita ni Alomofu za nafsi.
Tazama mfano wa pili:

Mtoto = M -toto,
Watoto = Wa -toto,
Mwalimu = Mw -alimu

Katika mfano huo, maneno yaliyokozwa wino ambayo ni M , Wa na Mw ni mofimu zinazodokeza umoja na wingi wa nomino. Kwa kuwa maumbo ya mofimu hizo ni tofauti lakini hufanya kazi moja kisarufi, ndiyo maana tunaziita Alomofu.

Mazingira yanayosababisha kutokea kwa alomofu:

Alomofu hutokana na mazingira tofautitofauti.

Alomofu zinaweza kutokana na mazingira yafuatayo:

Kifonolojia
Hapa tunaweza kuona mifano ya mazingira yanayoweza kutokea kwa mofimu na alomofu zake katika
unyambulishaji wa vitenzi vya Kiswahili .

Mfano: Kutendeka
Piga -               Pig- ik-a
Cheza -            Chez- ek -a
Zoa -                 Zo- lek-a
Chukua -           Chuku- lik -a

Hapo mofimu ik inayobainisha dhana ya kutendeka ina Alomofu nne , ambazo ni: Ik, ek, lek na lik

Kileksika
Hapa tunaweza kuona mofimu na alomofu zake katika ngeli za majina. Kwa mfano, katika ngeli ya kwanza na ya pili yaani, m/wa

Mfano
M -tu -                   wa -tu
M -ke -                   wa -ke
Mw -alimu -           wa -alimu
Mu -uguzi -             wa -uguzi

Katika mfano huo, tunaona mofimu m yenye dhana ya umoja ina alomofu tatu ambazo ni: M , Mw na Mu.

Kisarufi
Hapa tunapata mofimu na alomofu zake katika mofimu ya njeo (wakati).

Mofimu ya nje inawakilishwa na alomofu zifuatazo:
A- na -pika = Wakati uliopo
A- li -pika = Wakati uliopita
A- ta -pika = Wakati ujao

Hapo alomofu za njeo ni: na , li , na ta

DHANA YA MOFU

DHANA YA MOFU
Mofu ni umbo kietimolojia
Mofimu ni maana (kabla ya kuja kwa sarufi mamboleo neno mofimu lilitumika kwa maana ya umbo na maana, dhana hii ilianzishwa na mtaalamu wa Isimu aitwaye Noam homsky lakini baadaye ikaamuliwa kuwa Mofimu itumike kuukilia maana kwa sababu kietimolojia mofimu hmaanisha maana – elementi dhahania.
Alo = zaidi ya moja (mf. Alomofu = maumbo zaidi ya moja yanayowakilisha mofimu (maana) moja kisarufi).
NB: Maana ya kietimolojia ni fasili ya neno au kitu kutoka kwenye lugha yake ya asili.

MOFU
Ni kipashio cha kimofolojia kinachosetiri mofimu (maana).

Mofu ni umbo ambalo huweza kuandikwa watu wanapoandika maneno na pia huweza kutamkwa watu wanapotamka maneno.

Kwa hiyo neno lolote lenye maana sharti liwe na mofu angalau moja kwa msingi kwamba maana ni elementi dhahania ambayo hubebwa na umbo fulani.

AINA ZA MOFU
Mofu huainishwa kwa kuzingatia vigezo viwili ambavyo ni:

Maana inayobebwa na mofu na
Mofolojia ya mofu.

Aina za mofu kwa kigezo cha maana
Kigezo hiki kina aina tatu za mofu ambazo ni mofu huru, mofu funge na mofu tata

1.Mofu huru
Hizi ni mofu ambazo husimama kama maneno kamili yanayojitosheleza kimuundo na kitaarifa.
mf. Baba, mama, safi, Sali, kaka, n.k

2.Mofu funge/tegemezi
Ni vijisehemu vya neno vinavyojiegemeza kwenye mzizi wa neno ili kutoa taarifa fulani. Kila kipande cha neno ni mofu funge.
mf.
Anaimba = A-na-imb-a
Tuliochezeana = Tu-li-o-chez-ean-a

3.Mofu Tata
Hizi ni mofu ambazo zikitumiwa katika maneno huleta utata, hufanya neno liwe na maana zaidi ya moja.
Mf:
Juma aliwacheze a wanangu
Katika tungo hiyo kuna utata wa kimaana ambao unabebwa na neno
aliwachezea . Kimsingi utata katika neno hilo unasababishwa na kauli ya kutendea ambayo imebebwa na mofu –e- ya utendea. Maana zinazoletwa na mofu hiyo ya utendea ni kuwa ukisema Juma aliwachezea wanangu
wanaokusikiliza wanaweza kuelewa kuwa:
(i) Juma alicheza ili kuwafurahisha watoto
(ii) Juma alicheza kwa niaba ya watoto
(iii) Juma aliwaroga watoto
(iv) Juma aliwafanyia watoto tendo la udhalilishaji
Maana zote hizo zinaletwa na mofu – e- na hiyo ndio tunaiita mofu tata.

Aina za mofu kwa kigezo cha mofolojia
Hapa tunapata aina mbili za mofu za mofu ambazo ni mofu changamano na mofu kapa

4.Mofu Changamano
Mofu changamano huundwa kwa kuweka pamoja mzizi au shina zaidi ya moja ili kuunda neno moja. Katika hali ya kawaida kila moja ya mizizi hiyo huweza kusimama peke yake na kuunda neno lake.
Mf.
Mwana + nchi
Mwana + chama
Askari + kanzu

5.Mofu Kapa
Ni maumbo ambayo hayadhihiriki kimatamshi (kifonolojia) wala kimaandishi (kiothografia) lakini athari zake zipo akilini mwa wazungumzaji. Katika maandishi mofu hizi huwakilishwa na msimbo (alama) θ. Katika Kiswahili kuna mofu kapa za umoja na za wingi.
mf. 1
Umoja
Wingi
θ+sanduku ma+sanduku
θ+debe ma+debe
θ+chungwa ma+chungwa
mf. 2
Umoja wingi
U+nywele θ+nywele
U+kucha θ+kucha
U+funguo θ+funguo
Katika mfano wa kwanza (1) hakuna mofu za umoja lakini za wingi zipo na katika mfano wa pili (2) mofu za umoja zipo na za wingi hazipo. Kwa hiyo mtu akisema “ …niletee sanduku ” inajulikana ni sanduku moja na akisema, “ …niletee masanduku” inajulikana ni zaidi ya moja. Hali kadhalika ukiambiwa funguo ni tofauti na ukiambiwa ufunguo. Mofu kapa huwa akilini mwa wasemaji wa lugha.

OEP 101: EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY - LEARNING THEORIES AND TEACHING

OEP 101: EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

LEARNING THEORIES AND TEACHING
What is a theory?
Dorin, Demmin and Gabel (1990) say that; theories provide general observations on a phenomenon made over time but the information gained so far has not yet being established beyond doubt.
A theory is a fact based framework for describing a phenomenon. In psychology, theories are used to provide a model for understanding human thoughts, emotions and behaviors.
A psychological theory has two key components:
it must describe a behavior
it must make predictions about future behavior
For a theory to be recognized, lies a collective assumptions of the existence of the phenomenon, and that it has the best explanation of phenomenon and the respective people are working on it to eventually prove that it is true.
Education psychology include some theories that dominate and impact the field and related fields for a certain period of time and then they lose their dominance to other theories seen as more “plausible” (reasonable or believable).
1. Behavioral Approaches
Is a theory of learning based on the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning which occurs through interaction with the environment. Behaviorists believe that our responses to environmental stimuli shape our actions.
Among the behaviorists includes
Edward Thorndike, Ivan Pavlov, John Watson, Tolman and B.F. Skinner. The main focus of behaviorism is that behavior is learnt through conditioning. behaviorists believe that learning is expressed by change in overt behavior (observable behavior), the environment changes behavior and that the formation of a bond of things or events depends on the time interval between them.
Behaviorism defines learning as permanent changes of behavior as a result of experience. There must be a change in observable behavior to definitely prove that learning has taken place. Lack of change in behavior implies that learning has not occurred.
To behaviorists learning is associated by classical conditioning and instrumental conditioning.
However, it is important to have a glance at Edward Thorndike theory of response association expressed as S R = Stimulus Response
The theory states that, when an organism detects a certain
stimulus it gives a specific response based on previous encounters.
This approach of learning had three laws:
Law of exercise: states that, connection between stimulus and response is strengthened depending on how frequent they are used together.
Law of effect : states that strengthening or weakening of the connection between stimulus and response are the results of the consequences of the response.
Law of readiness : states that the basis of individual’s response depends on the extent of his/her preparedness to act.
Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning is also known as Pavlovian Conditioning.
Refers to a learning procedure in which a biologically potent stimulus (eg. food) is paired with a previously neutral stimulus (eg. a bell).
Pavlov Terminologies
Unconditioned stimulus (US): a stimulus in the environment that biologically makes an organism to give a specific response, eg. food makes organisms salivate.
Conditioned stimulus (CS): this is a neutral stimulus that naturally does not produce response but after being paired several times with the US produces a response eg. A bell before connected to food.
Unconditional Response (UCR):
this is an unlearned response produced by UCS. The dog naturally salivate when food powder was placed on the tongue, we normally salivate when we taste something delicious. UCR can be counted as reflex action.
Conditional Response (CR): this is a response that is elicited by CS alone. Before pairing CS and UCS there was no response, but after pairing an organism makes a response on CS in the absence of UCS.
Identify the UCS,UCR, CS, and CR in a given paragraph bellow:
Example:
Alexander is four years old. One night his parents decided to light a fire in the family room fireplace. A burning ember jumped out of the fireplace and landed on Alexander’s leg, creating a nasty burn. He cried because the burn hurt. A week later, when Alexander’s parents started to light another fire in the fireplace, Alexander began to cry.
From the paragraph above
UCS = the nasty burn
UCR = crying
CS = the fire in the fireplace
CR = crying
Pavlov Observations on Classical Conditioning
Extiction: if one stops pairing the CS and UCS, the CR will cease in response to CS. The dogs stopped to salivate if the bell was presented alone several times in absence of food.
Stimulus generalization: CR can occur in presence of stimuli that are similar to the UCS. The dogs salivated when they had sounds similar to the bell.
Stimulus discrimination: an organism can learn to discriminate between the Cs and other stimuli similar to the Cs ie give CR only to one specific CS. This occurs after recognizing that only one specific neutral stimulus is accompanied with reward. The dogs learned to respond only to the bell and not to other similar sounds.
Spontaneous recovery (learning): the extinguished Cr can reappear latter if Cs is again paired with the UCS. The time taken to establish the connection during spontaneous recovery is much shorter than the initial one to establish the conditioning. Also after spontaneous recovery it takes a shorter time to extinguish CR if the CS is presented alone in absence of UCS.
Higher – order Conditioning:
once an organism has learned to associate CS and UCS, another neutral stimulus can be presented at the same with the CS. Eventually the new stimulus becomes CS that can elicit CR in absence of the original CS.
The way teachers react to students’ answers can induce fear that can negatively affect learning process and vice versa. If the teacher is too harsh to students’ answers, they may be conditioned to fear the teacher and lose interest to his/her subject. Alsoconditioning can account for test anxiety (fear of tests and examinations) among students.
Just as students learn to fear neutral things they can also learn not to fear the same things through extinction process. Remember extinction is stopping giving a response to CS. One can learn not to fear teachers or other objects in school.
Operant Conditioning (Instrumental Conditioning)
The approach of operant conditioning was developed by
B.F.Skinner (1904-1990). He postulated that psychology should deal with observable behaviors that can be measured and ignored the process taking place in the mind ie. mentalprocess.
In Pavlov’s experiment the dog had to wait for someone to introduce UCS for it to give a response.
In operant conditioning (sometimes called Instrumental Conditioning) the organism ‘opereates’ on the environment based on the consequences of its actions ie deliberately initiating and operating in a process of responses. The individual and the consequences are instrumental in his/her behavior.
Skinner used a special box (called Skinner Box) to study the behavior of some animals (mostly rats) to demonstrate his theory.
Based in these experiments Skinner established the following basic aspects of operant conditioning.
The sequence of operant conditioning can be illustrated in the following chart.
Actions that lead to positive consequences are repeated and those that bring negative consequences are avoided. Repeating or avoiding are both responses. Positive Reinforcement is a pleasant or rewarding consequence that follows a response and as a result makes it likely for response to be repeated in future when under the same circumstances.
A student will always study more for a course she/he does well. Negative reinforcement is a consequence that makes a person escape or avoid painful situation. These responses are likely to be repeated since they remove unpleasant conditions. A person will repeat taking pills that relief (avoid) headache when s/he gets a headache in the future.
Responses that do not get reinforcement eventually become extinct. Extinction means an organism stopping giving a response in presense of stimulus after learning that it will not be reinforced. A student will stop raising a hand to a teacher whom s//he knows will not select him/her to answer the questions.
In some occasions it takes time and trial and error to make an association between stimulus, response and reinforcement ie to establish new behavior through a process known as behaviorism shaping. Behavioral shaping invoves giving reinforcement to responses that lead to the final required response and ignoring the other responses, until the individual learns the association between the stimulus and the desired response.
Primary and Secondary Reinforcement
Reinforcers are objects, events or actions that increase the individual’s possibility of repeating a specific behavior in the future, The power of a reinforce depends on the person or organism being reinforced eg. money is an effective reinforce to humans but worth nothing to a dog and even a small child.
Aspirin is a reinforce to a person with headache but not to a person starving. As a teacher you must identify things or objects that are effective as reinforcers to students and sometimes to a specific student.
Types of Reinforcers
There are two types of reinforcers, namely Primary reinforcement and Secondary reinforcement.
Primary reinforcement: are natural things that meet our basic needs such as food, water and shelter. Other things that are paired with primary reinforcers and eventually get their own reinforcing powers ar known as
secondary reinforcers. Money is a good example of secondary reinforce. Many of the reinforcers in schools are secondary reinforcers. When a secondary reinforce acquires the properties of a primary reinforcer it is known as a
generalized reinforce. When we just work to get money just for the sake of becoming rich then money is a generalized reinforcer.
Schedules of Reinforcement
From the experiences not all of our responses are given reinforcement immediately. Some responses are reinforced immediately while others are not reinforced immediately ie the reinforcement is provided later. In most cases when we pay cash to the shopkeeper we get the object we want.
Schedules of reinforcement refers to a system that indicates which response get reinforcement and which will not get reinforcement.
In continuous reinforcement every response is followed by reinforcement. Every time a student gives a correct answer in the classroom the teacher nods in recognition. In the long run this schedule is not very effective since some people and organisms stop responding to enjoy the reinforcements that have been accumulated.
Continuous reinforcement is very effective in establishing new behavioral response. Once the intended behavioral responses has been established we can move on to partial reinforcement schedules ie not all responses get reinforcement, but rather just some of them. Partial reinforcement schedules have been known to be more effective in maintaining an established response than the continuous reinforcement. Partial reinforcement schedules can be in various patterns.
Patterns of partial reinforcement:
There are two types of partial reinforcement patterns namely as: Interval schedules and ratio schedules
In the Interval schedules; presentation of reinforcement is based on time factor. In fixed interval schedules a response is reinforced after a fixed amount of time has elapsed since the last reinforcement.
The time period between reinforcement is constantly the same. An employer can decide to give reinforcement to his worker after five days of work ie paying the worker at the end of every fifth day. Giving a test on every last Monday of each month is another example.
In variable Interval schedules the amount of time that elapses between the reinforcement varies. The individual (organism) knows that s/he will be given reinforcement but does not know when. The employer may pay his worker after five days this time, next payment after seven days and the following payment after four days. A teacher may decide to give a quiz after five days, then after six days and the next one after three days. Note that an individual has to give responses to get reinforcement within the respective period of time. The main limitation of fixed interval is that some people stay idle and only give responses just before the time reinforcement is expected.
In the ratio schedule presentation of reinforcement is based on a number of correct responses one has to make to get reinforcement. In fixed ratio schedules one is reinforced after making a fixed number of correct responses since the last reinforcement.
An employer can decide to give reinforcement after his worker has produced a specific number of items eg paying the worker after baking 100 loaves of bread. In classroom a teacher can only marks student’s exercise after he has completed five questions.
A variable ratio schedule implies one gets reinforcement after a set of average number of correct responses. These set vary in the number of correct responses. The first set might be after five responses, the second set after four responses and the following after six responses. A worker may get reinforcement after baking 100 loaves then after baking 200 loaves and then after just baking 75 loaves.
The effects of this type of schedule of reinforcement used differ. Fixed ratio is more effective when establishing a new behavior. The best schedule for maintaining behavior is variable ratio. The individual does not stop giving responses since s/he is always expecting to get reinforcement after the next response.
PREMARK’S PRINCIPLE
This principle was described by David Premark. Actions that are more desirable to the individual can be used as reinforcers for less desirable ones. Desirable actions done by individual more often and much longer in terms of time relative to the less desirable ones ie desirable actions have high frequency activity. In life every person has actions that s/he likes more and other actions that s/he likes less. Many children (and adults too) like to watch television and dislike homework.
Premark’s principle says that watching television can be used as a reinforcement for doing homework or washing pots. A child is required to complete homework or washing pots before being allowed out to play.
As a teacher it is advisable to identify desirable actions of your students and then make a reinforcement hierarchy ie listing actions of student with the most desirable action at the top and ending the least desirable action at the bottom. To obtain the list you can tell students to write what they like or you can observe them during their spare time.
COGNITIVE THEORIES OF LEARNING
Several psychologists identify cognitive processes as critical component in understanding human behavior. All cognitive theories look beyond overt behavior and rather focus on brain and mental processes in explaining learning. Other common features in these theories include making inferences on observable mental processes, believing that individuals are actively involved in learning process and learning involves relating new information to previously learned information.
Edward Tolman (Tolman & Honzik, 1930) proposed Latent learning in which an organism learns about its environment without reinforcement or a change in behavior. We develop cognitive map of our environment and only demonstrate this knowledge when reinforcement is available.
When in a new surroundings you observe the area and learn about the layout of objects without expecting any reinforcement. Later on the information acquired can be used to give a response that leads to reinforcement.
Gestalts psychologists
Psychologists of this perspective were against behaviorism by emphasizing that mental processes are important in explaining learning. Among the basic ideas of this theory is that we perceive things in whole and not in segment and the perception formed can be different from the reality.
Cognitive Constructivism
Constructivists hold that a learner is actively constructing and inventing his/her own knowledge from past experiences rather than just receive and absorb what s/he gets from others including teachers. A learner modifies his/her understanding in relation to the new information leading to internalization of concepts, rules and principles that are later applied in future encounters.
Constructivists main ideas are (Elliot et al, 2000):
We only know subjective reality and not the object reality since knowledge we have is based on our subjective experiences
Knowledge is subjective because each one has his/her own unique experiences
The knowledge of two people are said to be “taken as shared” to the extent that their constructions seem to function in the same way in given situation
Knowledge is constructed through the process of adapting to events and ideas one experiences
The construction of knowledge is significantly influenced by symbols and materials one uses or has ready access to.
Readiness to learn means that an individual is ready to learn when his/her existing cognitive constructions are capable of incorporating new information.
Piaget’s theory of Learning
This theory believes that learning is determined by mental structures and how the new information is incorporated into the existing knowledge.
Implications of cognitive theories on education are:
Cognitive processes influence learning
Learning difficulties often indicate ineffective cognitive processes, especially for children with learning disabilities
As children grow they become capable of increasingly more sophisticated thought
People organize things they learn
New information is most easily acquired when people can associate it with things they have already learned
People control their own learning.

OEP 101: EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY - DEVELOPMENT OF A CHILD

OEP 101: EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

DEVELOPMENT OF A CHILD
Main concepts
Developmental psychology is the scientific study of how and why human beings change over the course of their life. Originally concerned with infants and children, the field has expanded to include adolescence, adult development, aging, and the entire lifespan. Developmental psychologists aim to explain how thinking, feeling and behavior change throughout life. This field examines change across three major dimensions: physical development, cognitive development, and socio-emotional development.
There is a clear distinction between ‘ growth’ and
‘development’ as used in psychology. Both concepts are based on the fact that during life span individuals are progressing from one stage to a higher stage.
Growth: is used when the changes are quantitatively, ie. An increase or decrease in numbers. A good example is height and weight of a child. In normal circumstances children’s height and weight increases as they progress in years. We expect two years old to be shorter and lighter at this age relative to when they will be in primary school.
Development: is used for qualitative changes.
Development is progressive acquisition of various skills (abilities) such as head support, speaking, learning, expressing the feelings and relating with other people. These are not directly observable but infer some changes within the individual have taken place. A good example is language development. At birth children cannot talk however around two years they begin to speak. Language spoken at the age of two is qualitatively inferior relative to the language used at four or at ten. The changes manifested in language don’t mean that the brain has changed but rather some reorganization has taken place that account for the differences between the stages.
Development a child (students) can be looked at three main areas which are: physical, cognitive
and psychosocial. These areas are interrelated and develop simultaneously. There is quite variation in rate of development as in some group of students of the same age and in the same age in the class and all still growing you find some of them are taller while others are shorter, some are heavy and others are not so heavy, some have language development while others have not. There are also some developmental variations within the individual himself/herself. Some may grow fast in terms of weight but more slowly in height. The implication is that students of the same age are similar in some aspects and different in others.
The periods of child development are classified by psychologists into four periods. Notice that, there is variation on the onset and end of the periods. The periods are:
Infancy: starts from birth to 18 to 24 months. It is characterized by :
- Total dependence on the caregivers at the beginning
- Development of sensorimotor coordination
- Walking
- Language
- Thinking and
- Learning
Early childhood: starts at the end of infancy and extends to 2.5 to 6 years. Early childhood (usually defined as birth to year 8) is a time of tremendous physical, cognitive, socio-emotional, and language development. Sometime this is called preschool period. The child is more self-sufficient and has developed some skills related to improved sensorimotor coordination.
Middle to late childhood: extends from 6 to 11 years. Most of children in this stage are in primary schools (elementary schools). They have developed self-control and acquire primary skills of learning such as reading, writing and math.
Adolescence: begins around 11 years and extends to between 18. This is a transitional period from childhood to adulthood that is characterized by rapid body changes that includes the development of sexual organs functions. Also individuals in this stage seek self-independence. Most complete primary school at this stage, and most of secondary school students are in this period.
ROLE OF HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF STUDENTS
In development there is a constant interaction between
nature and environment (nurture) . The nature component involves the biological processes that start at conception i.e. genetic inheritance formed by the combination of genes of the sperm and those in the ova. The conception process has a major role in determining the rate of growth of the body in terms of weight and height; and the development of brain, motor skills and body changes caused by hormones. Also, there are some human potential that are genetically programmed, including the learning processes, language development and motor coordination.
The environment (nurture) includes physical and social surroundings. Physical environment is essential for the survival of the individual, his/her development in general and learning process. Some studies have indicated that children who had severe
kwashiorkor experienced learning difficulties later in schools (Galler, et al, 1987), and those exposed to lead later on in life experience physiological problems (Patrick, 2006). In physically stimulating environments children were found to be more developed language wise than those in less stimulating environment (UNESCO, 1987). Social environment in form of child’s relationship with other people has great influence on the socio-emotional processes of the child i.e. emotional and personality changes of the child.
As a teacher, you are part of the environment and your aim is to enhance learning and the full development of the students’ abilities and you need to avoid being source of deterring learning potential of the students.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT DURING CHILDHOOD
Brain is the major organ of cognitive processes. The brain is divided into different parts that are involved in different aspects of cognition and learning.
The brain has two halves; called
cerebral hemisphere, which are connected by corpus callosum (The corpus callosum is a thick band of nerve fibers that divides the cerebral cortex lobes into left and right hemispheres. It connects the left and right sides of the brain allowing for communication between both hemispheres).
The two spheres appear to be identical but there are some differences in their functions.
Cerebral lateralization is the specialization of the functions of each sphere of the brain. The right hemisphere controls the left side of the body while the left hemisphere controls the right side of the body. So, if you are right handed you are left lateralized, if left handed you are right lateralized. For most people speech is localized in the left hemisphere. Nonverbal processes such as spatial perception, visual activities and emotions are predominantly localized in the right hemisphere.
However, studies show that the brain is more complicated than that since both atmospheres to some degree are involved in all activities. Complex functions such as logic and creativity involve both spheres of the brain.
The brain has four lobes. Frontal lobe has functions for motor activities and thinking; temporal lobe has functions for hearing; parietal lobe has functions for body sensations; and occipital lobe has functions for vision. The brain lobes are as seen in the diagram below.
In describing cognitive development Jean Piaget (1896-1980) a Swiss psychologist while working with the results of IQ tests of children he noticed that young children’s answers are qualitatively different from those given by older children. He believed that children are actively constructing their world as they respond to what they see, touch or test. For him the way human respond to the environment is not learned but an inherit method of intellectual functioning i.e. a function that is there since birth.
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development has four major stages with sub-stages in each stage. Here come some important concepts before discussing the Piaget’s stages.
Schema is a concept or an organized pattern of thoughts or behavior that one organized unit. Riding a bicycle is a scheme (behavior); picture of a dog or a dog is a scheme; and teaching is a
scheme (a complex one). Schemes help us to organize and make sense of our world.
Adaptation is a psychological mechanism used by children to use and adapt schemas in a new experience. This mechanism has two processes, namely assimilation
and accommodation.
Assimilation occurs when a child incorporates new knowledge into existing knowledge i.e. taking in new objects, events and concepts into the existing schemas.
Accommodation occurs when we are changed by what enters into our mental structures. So, through assimilation we transform the environment to fit into preexisting cognitive structures while accommodation changes our cognitive structures in order to accept something new from the environment.
Equilibration is a concept developed by Piaget that describes the cognitive balancing of new information with old knowledge.
...... Equilibration involves the assimilation of information to fit with an individual's own existing mental schemas and the accommodation of information by adapting it their way of thinking.
Organization is when bring together isolated behaviors or ideas into a single more complex behavior or concept. This leads to have smooth functioning cognitive system.
The above processes are fundamental on how children understand their world and adapt it in their mental structures.
All children follow the same sequence but at different rate.
Piaget’s stages
1. The sensorimotor stage
This stage extends from birth to 2 years. The term sensorimotor imply that during this stage the child explores his world by using sensory experiences such as seeing, hearing and touching. It is by coordinating these experiences that the child develops the first schemas and it is the basis of the beginning of cognitive development.
At this stage child’s responses are through reflex actions i.e. unlearned, innate reflexes such as sucking anything he/she touches or grasping any object he touches to his palm of hand.
This stage is then sub-divided into three parts known as primary circular reaction dealing with deliberately repeated actions involve only body e.g. sucking (involves fingers and mouth). The second is secondary circular reaction in which children develops behaviors like holding an object and coordinate several actions to achieve something. The third one is called tertiary circular reaction between 12 and 18 months whereby a child starts experiment with things e.g. deliberately dropping things to see what will happen.
During this stage a child forms the first schemas through
assimilation and accommodation in adapting to his/her world. It is the beginning of the organization process. Development of language (associating sounds with objects or events) is another important aspect in this stage.
Also, they develop sense of object permanence i.e. objects continue to exist even when out of sight. Before then children do not look for objects that are removed or obstructed out of visual field, cannot be seen, heard or touched. The sense of object permanence is very significant since the child’s world becomes organized and predictable. Furthermore, in this stage the child becomes aware that he/she can be the cause of an action. Also, due to development of mobility the child is able to explore objects that are far and consequently new mental abilities.
At this stage children learn to walk, meaning they gain the ability to access the environment around them. Before walking they had to depend on others to bring items to them, now they can move around to the object and explore their surroundings. So in sensorimotor stage children learn through use of senses, actively exploring their environment.
Touch the palm ( the central. region of the front of the hand) ofa child less than 12 months old and observe his/her reactions.
2. Preoperational stage
This stage extends from 2 to 7 years. According to Piaget
operations are actions that we perform mentally including knowing an object, thinking and manipulating ideas. A good example is when we compare things mentally to discover their similarities and differences. So, in preoperational stage the child is not yet able to manipulate things mentally through s/he has started to use language. In this stage a child’s mental functioning is mainly characterized with the use of symbols.
The child gains the mental ability to represent an object that is absent, a demonstration of thinking. The use of language expands rapidly; they engage in pretending plays whereby an object (let’s say a piece of wood) may represent a house, a car or person. In the play they assume that the innate objects (not endowed with life or spirit )are alive and conscious, referred to as animism (is the belief that everything has a soul or spirit).
Another characteristic of this stage is egocentrism (is the inability to differentiate between self and other. ...). this is the inability to know and recognize that other people see objects from their point of view and instead they think that the other person is seeing the object as s/he is seeing it from his/her position.
Because of this characteristic a child at this stage may need company of other children but normally each one engage in his/her own play and monologue.
Do not waste your time forcing a child in this age to see things from your point of view.
Centration refers to child’s tendency of concentrating and focusing on only one aspect of an object and disregarding the other aspects although they are important features of the object.
Children in preoperational stage also lack conservation i.e. the ability to realize that properties of an object remain the same although its shape might change. For adults a volume of liquid remains the same even when put into a container of different shape or size. Due to lack of conservation a child thinks that water poured into a narrow container is more than when it was in broad container. This is caused by irreversibility i.e. the child being unable to reverse mentally the procedures or his/her thinking.
Therefore, in this stage of preoperational children learn by experiencing real objects in their surroundings. They use symbols and images in constructing knowledge about their world. Children are egocentric and cannot understand other people’s point of view.
3. Concrete Operational Stage
This stage extends from 7 to 11 years. In this stage children overcome the limitations of the preoperational stage by using reasoning that involves concrete operations i.e. they can deal with real concrete situations but are unable to deal with abstract situations.
The child now has establishes conservation since s/he can reverse mental actions and take into account several aspects of the object or event instead of focusing only on one aspect.
Egocentric thinking diminishes too. A child in this stage makes addition by counting real things, mostly fingers. The problem comes when the sum is more than ten and they are wearing shoes! This is why children at this stage seem to carry bottle tops in a string to school for making calculations.
This stage is characterized by a number of behaviors like:
Classification i.e. to sort out things from a big group and put them in sets or categories based on their similarities. Also, they have the ability to know an object can be classified into different groups, eg. one woman at the same time can be a daughter, mother, sister, wife and grandmother.
Seriation this is an ability lacking in the preoperational stage where children cannot compare more than two objects at the same time. Due to seriation they can reason about relationships and come up with logical conclusions ( transitivity) . They can conclude that object “C” is taller than object “A” upon realization that “B” is taller than “A” and “C” is taller than “B”.
Spend some time in lower classrooms in a primary school i.e. standard one and two. Make observations of the characteristics of children in preoperational stage.
4. Formal Operational stage
This is the fourth and last stage in Piaget’s cognitive theory. It starts at about 11 and 12 years (during adolescence). In the previous stage a child is only able to conduct concrete operations by using real objects. However, in this stage the adolescent demonstrates the ability to think in abstract, idealistic and logical ways. They solve problems presented to them verbally and they can express themselves without relying on concrete objects.
One of their characteristics is that they can differentiate the real from the possible and can think about the future. They have developed hypothetical-deductive reasoning whereby they think abstractly in systematic manner that involves developing hypothesis and means of testing them.
In their plans they gather all possible information and study possible combinations of solving the problems.
IMPLICATIONS OF THE THEORY TO TEACHERS
Teachers have knowledge on developmental psychology especially on cognitive development.
Teachers get to understand that children are mentally qualitatively different from adults and among themselves depending on their cognitive stage of development (individual variations)
Enable teachers to recognize and understand that children’s answers are not ‘wrong’ or ‘weird’ ( weird -a miujiza, sio kawaida; -a kuogofya, -a ajabu, mtu mwenye tabia ya pekee. ) but statements indicating the state of their mental functions.
Guide teachers to observe the mental functions of their students basing on important key factors.
Help the curriculum developers to develop the curriculum that suit the learners with their environment and level of cognitive development.
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