SHAIRI

Shairi ni sehemu ya fasihi . Mashairi ni
tungo zenye kutumia mapigo ya silabi kwa utaratibu maalumu wa kimuziki kwa kutumia lugha ya mkato, lugha ya picha na tamathali za semi .
Mashairi huweza kuandikwa au kutungwa kulingana na jinsi yanavyoonekana. hii ina maana kuwa, mashairi huweza kutofautishwa kwa
idadi ya mishororo, jinsi maneno yalivyopangwa, urari wa vina na kadhalika.
Kuna mashairi yanayofuata taratibu za
kimapokeo , yaani yanazingatia taratibu za urari na vina, mizani , idadi sawa ya mistari, vituo na beti.

Mashairi huwa na mizani 14 au 16 katika kila mstari, yaani mizani 7 au 8 kwa kila kipande cha mstari.
Pia kuna mashairi yasiyofuata utaratibu huo wa kimapokeo na huitwa mashairi ya kimamboleo. Mashairi haya mara nyingi huwa ni nyimbo.
Mfano
Tulopeleka bungeni, wamegeuka nyang'au,
Mafisadi kama nini, baladhuli mabahau,
Wanavunja mpini, konde wamelisahau,
Zamani na siku hizi, mambo sivyo yavyokuwa.
Mwalimu mwana elimu, asiyekujua ni nani?
Kwake ilete elimu, liyopewa na Maanani,
Watu wote wafahamu, hapingiki hasilani,
Adharauye mwalimu, kapungua akilini.

Aina za mashairi
Kuna aina kuu mbili za mashairi, nazo ni kama zifuatavyo:

(i) Mashairi ya kimapokeo
Vilevile huitwa mashairi funge - ni mashairi yanayozingatia kanuni za muwala/urari (ulinganifu) wa mizani, vina, idadi ya mistari katika kila ubeti na kituo katika shairi.

(ii) Mashairi ya kimamboleo
Haya ni mashairi yasiyozingatia kanuni za kimapokeo, yaani, hayazingatii kanuni za muwala/urari (ulinganifu) wa mizani, vina, idadi ya mistari katika kila ubeti na kituo katika shairi. Mashairi haya pia huitwa mashairi huru / mashairi ghuni / mashairi ya kisasa / masivina /
mapingiti.

Mizani
Mizani ni ulinganifu wa idadi ya silabi katika kila kipande au mistari ya ubeti wa shairi. Mara nyingi mashairi ya kimapokeo huwa na mizani nane (8) kwa kila kipande na mizani kumi na sita (16) kwa kila mstari (mshororo).

Vina
Vina ni silabi zenye sauti ya namna moja zinazotokea katikati au mwishoni mwa kila mshororo wa kila ubeti wa shairi. Hivyo basi kuna vina vya kati na
vina vya mwisho .

Ubeti
Ni fungu la mistari lenye maana kamili. Ubeti unaweza kulinganishwa na aya katika maandiko ya kinathari. Mara nyingi ubeti huishia katika kituo. Ubeti mmoja unaweza kuwa na:

Mstari mmoja (tamonitha )
Mistari miwili (tathiniya/ tathinia/uwili): shairi hili huwa na mishororo miwili katika kila ubeti. vina vyake vyaweza kuwa na mtiririko.

Mistari mitatu (tathilitha ): shairi hili huwa na mishororo mitatu katika kila ubeti. vina vyake huenda vikawa na urari.

Mistari mine (tarbia ): shairi la aina hii huwa na mishororo minne katika kila ubeti. mara nyingi shairi hili hugawanywa katika sehemu mbili, ukwapi na utao. mshororo wa kwanza wa shairi hili huitwa kipokeo, wa pili huitwa mloto, wa nne huitwa kibwagizo. kibwagizo huwa kinarudiwarudiwa katika kila ubeti.

Mistari mitano (takhmisa ): hili ni shairi lenye mishororo mitano katika kila ubeti

Mistari zaidi ya mitano (sabilia ), kwa mfano: tasdisa huwa na mishororo sita katika kila ubeti, tathmina huwa na mishororo minane katika kila ubeti, ukumi huna na mishororo kumi katika kila ubeti.

Aina za mashairi jinsi yanavyojitokeza:

1. Kikwamba ni aina ya shairi lililo na kibwagizo ambacho ni kifupi ukilinganisha na ile mishororo mingine. hili huweza kuuchukuwa mfumo wa mashairi yale mengine.
2. Ngonjera: shairi hili huhusisha waimbaji zaidi ya mmoja ambao uimbaji wao huwa katika mfumo wa majibizano.
Kituo
Ni mstari (mshororo) wa mwisho katika kila ubeti wa shairi ambao huonesha msisitizo wa ubeti mzima au shairi zima. Wakati mwingine kituo huitwa
kibwagizo/ korasi/ mkarara/ kiitikio.

UHAKIKI WA KAZI ZA FASIHI

Imetayarishwa na Mwl.Safari Albert.J,
Simu:+255 715 803 005
barua pepe:salbertode@yahoo.com

Uhakiki ni kazi au kitendo cha kutafakari, kuchambua na kufafanua kazi ya fasihi ili kuweka bayana maadili na ujumbe uliomo katika kazi ya fasihi. Hivyo mhakiki sharti asome kazi ya fasihi andishi au kusikiliza masimulizi kwa makini ili aweze kuyahakiki

Mhakiki ni mtu anayejishughulisha na kazi za kisanaa hususan za kifasihi za wasanii asilia. Mhakiki ni mchambuzi na mfafanuzi wa kazi za kifasihi. Ni jicho la jamii kwani ndiye agunduaye mazuri yaliyomo katika kazi hiyo, hali kadhali mabaya (hatari) yaliyopo katika maandishi hayo kwa jamii husika .

Mhakiki ni bingwa wa kusoma na kuchambua vipengele vya fani na maudhui katika maandishi ya fashihi. Kwa mantiki hiyo mhakiki ni chombo madhubuti cha jamii inayohusika cha kuleta maendeleo katika jamii. Kwa kuzingatia haya anawajibika kuwa mwaminifu, mkweli, asiyeogopa kuweka wazi ubaya uliomo katika maandishi ya mwandishi asilia, na asiyependelea waandishi Fulani Fulani kwa sababu zisizona maslahi kwa jamii. Pamoja na hayo uhakiki wa kazi za fasihi unaambatana na mambo yafuatayo:

(a)Kuisoma kazi ya fasihi kwa makini na kuielewa

(b)Kuchambua vipengele vya fani na maudhui katika kazi hiyo

(c)        Kueleza ubora na udhaifu wa matumizi ya vipengele vya fani na maudhui katika kazi hiyo.

Kwa mujibu wa maelezo hayo ni wazikuwa mhakiki anabeba dhima zifuatazo:

1.Kuchambua na kuweka wazi funzolitolewalo na kazi ya fasihi.

2.         Kuchambua na kufafanua taswira (picha za kisanii) zilizotumika katika kazi ya mwandishi.

3.         Kumshauri na kumtia moyo mwandishi ili afanye kazi bora zaidi (hivyo mhakiki                pia ni mwalimu wa mwandishi)

4.         Kumwelekeza na kumchochea msomaji kusoma na kupata faida zaidi ya ambayo               angeipata pasipo dira ya mhakiki (mhakiki ni mwalimu na daraja kati ya                     mwandishi na jamii)

5.         Kuhimiza na kushirikisha fikra za kihakiki katika kazi za fasihi.

6.         Kukuza kiwango cha utunzi na usomaji wa kazi za fasihi.

7.         Kutafuta na kuweka sawa nadharia za fasihi teule.

8.         Kuthamini na kuheshimu kazi za waandishi kwa kuzitendea haki

VIGEZO VYA UHAKIKI

Kwa kuzingatia kwamba fasihi husawiri jamii katika mfumo mzima wa maisha ya jamiii hiyo mathalani shughuli zinazofanywa katika jamii husika, basi si budi kuzingatia yafuatayo katika kupima kazi ya fasihi:

(i)         Ukweli wa mambo yanayoelezwa – mhakiki kama hakimu na daraja atajiuliza, je,               ni kweli yaliyoelezwa katika kazi hiyo yanatendeka? Kama anahakiki habari             kuhusu ubakaji au rushwa – Anapaswa kujiuliza, Je ni kweli mambo hayo yapo                     katika jamii ya Tanzania?

(ii)        Uhalisia wa watu, mazingira na matukio katika jamii. Hapo mhakiki analinganisha wahusika wa  kazi husika na watu halisi ili kuona kama jamii zungumziwa ina watu wanaotenda kama wahusika waliotumika. Mfano habari inaeleza kuwa mganga wa kienyeji aliwapaka dawa watoto wakawaona wachawi,             mhakiki anaweza kujiuliza kama kweli hilo linaweza kutokea katika jamiii husika.

(iii)       Umuhimu wa kazi hiyo kwa jamii husika lazima uzingatiwe. Jambo linalozungumzwa linaweza kuwa la kweli na linalihalisika lakini lisiwe na umuhimu mkubwa katika jamii kiasi cha kuvuta utayari wa jamii hiyo.

vigezo hivi ndivyo vitumikavyo kupimia vipengele vya maudhui,(dhamira, ujumbe, migogoro, mafunzo na falsafa). Na vipengele vya fani, (muundo, mtindo, matumizi ya lugha, wahusika, na mandhari)

Kwa mfano;

Hadithi inayosifu maisha ya vijijini na kuwashauri vijana wasikimbilie mijini, lazima ipimwe kwa kuzingatia ukweli uliopo vijijini. Mhakiki atajiuliza maswali ya dhamira, mafunzo, migogoro, ujumbe na falsafa kama haya:- Je, ni kweli kuwa wanavijij wana maisha bora kuliko mjini? Je, wanavijiji wanahuduma za lazima kama hospitali zenye waganga na dawa? Je, wanavijiji wana maji salama kwa ajili yao, mifugo na mazao yao? Je, mazao ya wanavijiji yananunuliwa kwa fedha taslimu na mapema? Je, wanavijiji hawa bughudhiwi na wezi, waporaji n.k?

Hali kadhalika mhakikia atajiuliza  maswali kadhaa kuhusu kukimbilia mijii, kwa mfano; Je kijana anapokimbilia mjinii ana uhakika wa kupata kazi? Je, kazi kama kuuza machungwa au karanga mijini ni shughuli inayoweza kumkimu huyo kijana? Na Je, vijana wasio na kazi mijini hawalazimiki kuiba au kufanya uhalifu mwingine?

Hatimaye mhakiki atajiuliza maswali kuhusu ufumbuzi unaopendekezwa na mwandishi katika kazi yake, mfano tunaozungumzia mhakiki atajiuliza, je, mwandishi anashauri nini licha ya kusema vijana wabaki vijijini? Je, ni mambo gani anayopendekeza mwandishi kuhusu kuinua shughuli za kiuchumi vijijini? Je., suluhu la mwandishi (mapendekezo) linawezekana (ni yakinifu) au ni la kinjozi tu (la kidhanifu). Msingi wa maswali yote haya ni kujaribu kutambua ukweli, uhalisi na umuhimu wa kauli za mtunzi.

Katika uhakiki wa fani, vipengele vya fani huangaliwa jinsi vilivyotumika na kupima usahihi wake kimatumizi, na hapa maswali huweza kuwa hivi:

-Je, kazi husika ina muundo gani?

-Wahusika wamechorwaje?

-Je, wahusika wanahalisika katika jamii husika?

-Je,mpangilio wa maneno unavutia wahusika?

-Matumizi ya tamathali mbali mbali yanatosheleza haja?

-Misemo na methali zilizotumika zinafaaa hapo zilipotumika au zimepachikwa tu?

VIPENGELE VYA FANI NA MAUDHUI KATIKA KAZI ZA FASIHI ANDISHI:

Riwaya na tamthiliya:

A. Maudhui.

Maudhui katika kazi ya Fasihi ni jumla ya mawazo yote yanayozungumziwa pamoja na mtazamo wa mwandishi juu ya mawazo hayo. Maudhui hujumlisha mawazo, pamoja na mafunzo mbali mbali yaliyomsukuma msanii hadi kutunga kazi Fulani ya Fasihi.

Vipengele vya maudhui:

1.         Dhamira

Hili ni wazo kuu au mawazo mbali mbali yanayojitokeza katika kazi ya fasihi ambayo mwandishi huyajengea hoja. Dhamira hutokana na jamii na zipodhamira kuu na dhamira ndogo ndogo. Dhamira kuu ni zile za kisiasa, kiuchumi na kiutamaduni. Dhamira kuu ndicho kiini cha kazi ya fasihi na dhamira ndogondogo ni zile zinazoambatana na dhamira kuu.

2. Migogoro

Migogoro ni mivutano na misuguano mbali mbali ambayo huibuliwa na mwandishi katika kazi ya fasihi. Mgogoro kati ya wahusika ama vikundi vya wahusika, familia zao matabaka yao n.k. Migogoro hii mara nyingi hujikita katika mahusiano ya kijamii na ndipo tunapata migogoro ya :

(a)        kisiasa

(b)        kiuchumi

(c)        kiutamaduni

(d)       kinafsia (kifikra)

3.         Ujumbe na maadili

Ujumbe katika kazi ya fasihi ni mafunzo mbali mbali yapatikanayo baada ya kuisoma kazi ya fasihi. Ujumbe huwa sanjari na maadili mbali mbali ambayo mwandishi amekusudia jamii iyapate.

4.         Mtazamo

Ni hali ya kuyaona mambo katika maisha kwa kuzingatia mazingira             aliyonayo msanii mwenyewe. Wasanii wana mitizamo ya aina mbili:

(a)Mtazamo wa kiyakinifu – mtazamo huu ni ule wa kuyaangalia mambo    waziwazi na kuyaelezea kwa jamii kupitia kazi za kifasihi. Msanii anayeunga mkono mtazamo huu huutazama ulimwengu au mazingira yanayomzunguka binadamu kisayansi na hivyo huelezea mambo katika uhalisia wake.

(b)        Mtazamo wa kidhanifu – msanii mwenye mtazamo wa kidhanifu hujadili mambo na kuyatolea masuluhisho yaliyoegemea katika kudhani tu pasipokuzingatia uhalisia wa mambo. Huchukulia ulimwengu kama kitukinachobadilika kulingana na matakwa ya Mungu

5.         Falsafa:

Huu ni mwelekeo wa imani ya msanii. Msanii anaweza kuamini kuwa,        mwanamke si kiumbe duni kama wengine wanavyoamini au, kwa wale wapinga usawa, wanaweza kuwa na falsafa ya kumwona mwanamke kuwa kiumbe duni au chombo cha starehe.

Hivyo falsafa inatakiwa ichambuliwe kwa kuzingatia jinsi kazi hiyo ilivyoutazama ulimwengu na kuueleza ukweli juu ya mambo mbali mbali na ukweli huo lazima uhusishwe na binadamu.

6.         Msimamo:

Hii ni hali ya mwandishi kuamua kushikilia na kutetea jambo Fulani bila                 kujali kuwa jambo analolishikilia linakubalika au la.

Misimamo ya mwandishi huweza kuwekwa katika makundi (kategoria) matatu:

(a)Msimamo wa  kimapinduzi – mwandishi mwenye msimamo huu huyajadili masuala / matatizo yanayoihusus jamii yake na            kuonesha bayana – mbinu (njia) za kuondokana na matatizo hayo

(b)Msimamo usio wa kimapinduzi,  mwandishi mwenye msimamo huu huwa na asili ya woga inayomfanya kuyajadili mambo kwa kufichaficha na hivyo kushindwa kuleta athari chanya katika mapinduzi.kutokana na kutoonesha bayana masuluhisho ya matatizo aliyoyajadili.

7. Mtazamo

Ni jinsi msanii anavyoyatazama mambo katika ulimwengu wa kifasihi. Hapa tunapata mitazamo ya aina mbili.

(a)          Mtazamo wa kiyanifu ambao unaegemea katika kuyajadili mambo kiuhalisia, msanii mwenye mtazamo huu hujadili mambo kama yanavyojitokeza katika jamii. Kwa ujumla mtazamo huu hushadadiwa sana na wanasayansi ambao huhitaji kuthibitisha kila kitu kisayansi.

(b)          Mtazamo wa kidhanifu, huu una misingi yake katika kudhani kuwa Mungu ndiye suluhisho la kila kitu hivyo waandishi wenye mtazamo huu hujibainisha wazi kupitia kazi zao hasa kwa kujadili mambo kiujumlajumla mathalani “kuon a kuwa mapenzi bora ndiyo suluhisho la matatizo katika jamii” huu ni mtazamo wa kidhanifu.Wengi wa wanadini hufuata mtazamo huu.

B: Fani

Fani katika fasihi ni ule ufundi wa kisanaa anaoutumia msanii katika kufikisha ujumbe wake kwa jamii inayohusika.

VIPENGELE VYA FANI

1.         Muundo

Ni mgawanyo, mpangilio na mtiririko wa kazi hiyo kwa upande wa visa      na matukio. Ni jinsi msanii wa kazi ya fasihi alivyoifuma, kuiunda na kuunganisha tukio moja na lingine, sura moja na nyingine, ubeti na ubeti, na hata mstari wa ubeti na mwingine.

AINA ZA MIUNDO:

(a) Muundo wa moja kwa moja/msago

Huu ni muundo wa moja kwa moja ambao matukio huelezwa kwa kuanza  la mwanzo hadi la mwisho. Kwa mfano, mhusika huzaliwa, hukua, huchumbia au huchumbiwa, huoa au huolewa, huzaa watoto, huzeeka, hufa. Riwaya ya  “Kuli”imetumia muundo huu. Katika riwaya tunamwona Rashidi, akizaliwa, akiwa,           anaanza kazi, anaoa, anaanza harakati za kudai haki za makuli namwisho anafungwa.

(b)        Muundo wa kioo/rejea

Huu ni muundo unaotumia mbinu rejeshi ambayo huweza ama         kumrudisha nyuma msomaji wa kazi ya fasihi katika mpangilio wa matukio yake au kuipeleka mbele hadhira ya kazi hiyo. Riwaya ya “Zaka la Damu” imeutmia muundo huu.

(c)        Muundo wa rukia

Huu ni muundo ambao visa na matukio hurukiana. Katika muundo huu kunakuwa na visa viwili ambavyo hurukiana katika kusimuliwa kwake, na mwisho visa hivi huungana na kujenga kisa kimoja. Mfano Njama.

2.         Mtindo:

Mtindo katika kazi ya fasihi ni ile namna ambayo msanii huiwasilisha kazi yake kwa jamii. Ni upangaji wa fani na maudhui katika kazi ya fasihi kwa njia ambayo hudokeza upekee wa mwandishi.

Dhima ya mtindo

·         Humwezesha msomaji kujua hisia za mwandishi juu ya aliloliandika.

·         Hudokeza kiasi cha hisia na mwamko wa wahusika katika hadithi.

·         Kuonesha mtiririko (muwala) wa matukio.

·         Kuumba ulimwengu ambao utabeba maono ya msanii. Lengo ni kuepusha mifarakano inayoweza kujitokeza. Kwa mfano, katika riwaya ya “Kusadikika” ambayo imeumbiwa ulimwengu ulioko angani na nchi inayoelea.

Katika mtindo huangaliwa:

-Matumizi ya lugha

-Nafsi zilizotumiwa

-Matumizi ya monolojia (maelezo/ masimulizi) na dialojia (majibizano).

-Mbinu ya kutumia tanzu nyingine za fasihi simulizi

-Matumizi ya hadithi ndani ya hadithi

-Matumizi ya barua n.k.

Jambo la msingi katika mtindo ni lugha, na ndiyo inayotofautisha fasihi na sanaa nyingine kama vile uchoraji, uchongaji, usukaji, ufinyazi n.k. Msanii wa fasihi chombo chake (nyenzo) ni lugha.

3.         Wahusika:

Wahusika ni watu, vitu ama viumbe waliokusudiwa kubeba dhamira mbalimbali kwa lengo la kuwakilisha tabia za watu katika kazi ya fasihi.

Aina za Wahusika:

(a)        Wahusika Wakuu:

Hawa ni wale ambao wanajitokeza kila mara katika kazi za fasihi, hutokea tangu mwanzo hadi mwisho. Wahusika hawa hubeba kiini cha dhamira kuu na maana ya hadihti yote. Vituko, visa na matendo yote hujengwa         kuwahusu au kutokana nao. Mara nyingi jambo hili limewafanya wahusika wakuu wa kazi ya fasihi wawe “midomo” ya wasanii, na pia vipaza sauti vya watunzi wa kazi za fasihi. Wahusika wakuu hasa wameelezwa kwa  mapana na marefu juu ya maisha na tabia zao ili kuukamilisha unafsi wao.

(b)        Wahusika wadogo / wasaidizi

Hawa hujitokeza hapa na pale katika kazi ya fasihi ili kuukamilisha ulimwengu wa kazi hiyo. Hawa husaidia kuijenga dhamira fulani katika kazi ya fasihi na hasa hubeba dhamira ndogo na kwa minajili hiyo huitwa wahusika wadogo ingawa wakati Fulani husaidia kujenga na kuikamilisha dhamira kuu.

(c)        Wahusika wajenzi:

Hawa ni wahusika ambao wamewekwa ili kukamilisha dhamira na maudhui Fulani, kuwajenga na kuwakamilisha wahusika wakuu na wasaidizi. Wahusika wakuu na wadogo huweza kuwekwa katika aina tatu:

(i)         Wahusika Bapa;

Hawa ni wahusika ambao hawwabadiliki kitabia wala          kimawazo kulingana na mazingira au matukio ya wakati wanayokutana nayo. Wahusika bapa huweza kugawanywa kwenye makundi mawili:

Wahusika Bapa – sugu-

Hawa huwa sugu katika hali zote, kiasi kwamba hata tuwaonapo mahali pengine hali zao ni zile zile, wao ndio huhukumu hushauri na kuongoza tu na si vinginevyo wanakuwa kama madikteta. Mfano” Bwana Msa” katika riwaya ya “Mzimu wa watu wa kale” ya M.s. Abdulla.

Wahusika bapa – vielelezo –

Hawa pamoja na kutobadilika kwao, hupewa majina aghalabu ya kiishara ambayo – humfanya msomaji aelewe tabia na matendo yao. Mfano: “Waziri Majivuno”, “Adili”, Utubora” na “Karama” katika kazi za “Shaaban Robert” ni mfano wa wahusika bapa wala, kiasi ambacho anaondoa sehemu zote za sifa za wahusika huyo.

(ii)        Wahusika duara / mviringo

Hawa ni wahusika ambao hubadilika kitabia, kimawazo ama kisaikolojia. Maisha yao hutawaliwa na hali halisi yamaisha. Hivyo wanavutia zaidi kisanii, kwani husogeza hadithi ielekee kwenye hali ya kutendeka au kukubalika na jamii.Mfano, (Rose mistika) , Josina (pepo ya mabwege)

(iii)       Wahusika shida / foili

Hawa ni wahusika ambao huandamwa na shida, misukosuko na taabu na wahusika hawa hutokea kati ya wahusika bapa na duara. Wahusika shida huwategemea wahusika duara au bapa ili waweze kujengeka. Mfano: “Najum” katika riwaya y’’ Mzimu wa Watu wa Kale’’ na m.s Abdulla.

4.         Matumizi ya lugha

Lugha ndiyo njia (nyenzo) aitumiayo msanii wa fasihi kuyaelezea mambo mbali mbali yahusuyo jamii kwa njia ya ubunifu na usanii. Hivyo lugha ndiyo             mzizi wa kazi ya fasihi na bila yenyewe kuwapo haiwezekani kuwa na fasihi.

Vipengele vya lugha

(i)         Methali

Methali ni tungo fupi zenye hekima na busara ndani yake ambazo hutumika kama kiungo cha lugha kwa lengo la kufunzia na kupenyeza  hekima kwa jamii kupitia fashi.

Methali pia hutumika kujenga mandhari ya kiutamaduni ya kuaminika kuhusu jamii itumiayo methali hizo. Hivyo huweza kusemakuwa pale ambapo methali zimetumika katika kazi mbali mbali za fasihi, nyingi zimejenga fani na maudhui ya kazi hizo.

(ii)        Misemo na nahau

Matumizi ya misemo na nahau katika kazi za fasihi hushabihiana     sana na yale ya methali. Misemo na nahau hutumika kwa madhumuni anuai kama vile kutambulisha mazingira, na wakati husika wa kazi hiyo, lakini pia kupamba kazi ya fasihi pamoja na kuitajirisha lugha ya msanii katika Kazi yake.

(iii)       Tamathali za semi

Tamathali za usemi ni maneno ambayo hutumiwa na wasanii wa fasihi ili kutia msisitizo, nguvu na maana katika kazi zao, hali kadhalika kuboresha mtindo wa kazi zao. Wakati mwingine huwa na lengo la kupamba kazi ya fasihi na kuongeza utamu wa lugha. Kuna aina nyingi zatamathali za usemi kama ifuatavyo;

(a)Tamathali za mafumbo

Dhihaka (sarcasm)

Hii ni tamathali ya dharura na ina lengo la kumweka mtu katika hali duni kupita kiasi, lakini kwa mbinu ya mafumbo

Mfano:

“Adella alikuwa msichana msafi sana. Ndiyo maana kila, mara alipata kupaka mafuta yaliyonukia na kukaribisha  nzi  walioleta matatizo makubwa”.

Tafsida (Euphemism)

Hii hupunguza ukali wa maneno au utusi katika usemi

Mfano:

-Kujisaidia au kwenda haja badala ya kunya au kukojoa.

-Kuaga dunia badala ya kufa n.k

Kejeli / shitizai (Irony)

Hii imekusudiwa kuleta maana iliyo kinyume na ile iliyokusudiwa ama kinyume na ukweli ulivyo. Lengo lake ni kutaka kuzuia matatizo na migongano pindi itumikapo kwa lengo maalumu la kufundisha na kuasa.

Mfano:

-Mtu ni mchafu, lakini anaambiwa –sijamwona mtu msafi kama                   wewe.

-Mtu ni adui, lakini anambiwa – wewe ni rafiki mpenzi

-Mtu ni mweusi kama mkaa – anaitwa cheupe.

Kijembe / kiringo (Innuendo)

Huu ni usemi wa mzunguko, ni usemi wa kimafumbo wa kumsema mtu kwa ubaya.

(b)Tamathali za mliganisho

Sitiari (Metaphor)

Ni tamathali inayolinganisha matendo, vitu au tabia ya vitu vyenye maumbile tofauti bila kutumia viunganishi linganishi

Mfano:

-Maisha ni moshi

-Pesa ni maua

-Penzi upepo

-Misitu ni uhai

Tashibiha (simile)

Tamathali inayolinganisha vitu kwa kutumia maneno kama vile mfano wa, kama, mithili ya , sawa na , n.K

Mfano

-Ana sauti tamu sawa na ya chiriku

-Ana maringo kama twiga

-Ananyata mithili ya kinyonga

-Ana ng’ang’ania kama kupe.

Tashihisi (personification)

Tamathali hii huvipa vitu sifa walizonazo binadamu (hupewa uwezo walionao binadamu)

Mfano:

-Mvua iliponyesha misitu ilipiga makofi

-Mawimbi yalitabasamu  kwa upepo wa kusi.

Lakabu

Katika tamathali hii uhusiano wa maneno mawili kisarufi hugeuzwa na pengine huwekwa kinyume na taratibu za kisarufi zilivyo

Mfano:

-Baridi kali ilimkaribisha (lakini mtu ndiye mwenye uwezo wa kukaribisha)

-Giza liliwapokea walipokuwa wakiingia pangoni

(c)Tamathali za msisitizo na nyinginezo

Mubaalagha (Hyperbole)

Hii hutia chumvi kuhusu uwezo wa viumbe, tabia zao na hata sifa zao kwa madhumuni ya kuchekesha au kusisitiza

Mfano:

-Loo! Hebu muangalie mrembo yule! Ana mlima wa kiuno

-Tulimlilia Nyerere hadi kukawa na bahari ya machozi

-Mrembo yule hubeba kila aina ya silaha na huwatia wazimu wanaume wote anaokutana nao.

Taashira / metonumia (metonymy)

Katika tamathali hii jina la sehemu ya kitu kimoja au la kitu kidogo kinachohusiana na kingine kikubwa hutumiwa kuwakilisha kitu kamili.

Mfano:

-Jembe huwakilisha mkulima

-Kutabasamu huwakilisha furaha

-Mvi huwakilisha uzee

-Kalamu huwakilisha mwanafunzi / msomi.

Majazi

Hii ni aina ya sitiari ambayo itajapo sehemu tu ya kitu hapo hapo sehemu hiyo huashiria na kuwakilisha kitu hicho.

Mfano:

Roho – mtu

-Masikini, ajali ile ilipoteza roho tano hapo hapo]

Taniaba (Antonomasia)

Hii ni tamathali ambayo kwayo jina la mtu binafsi hutumiwa kwa watu wengine wenye tabia, mwenendo, hali au kazi sawa na ya mtu huyo.

Mfano:

-Yesu – mkombozi

-Yesu wa kwanza wa Afrika alikuwa Kwame Nkrumah

-Nyerere alikuwa Yesu wa kwanza Tanzania

Tabaini (antithesis)

Hii ni usemi unaosisitiza jambo kwa kutumia maneno ya ukinzani (unyume)

Mfano:

-Mwanadamu hupanga Mungu hupanga

-Amekuwa mrefu si mrefu, mfupi si mfupi ni wa kadiri

-Usimwamini mtu, yu acheka machoni, rohoni ana mabaya.

(d)Mbinu nyingine za kisanaa

Takriri (Tautology)

Hapa yanakuwepo marudio kwenye sentensi au kwenye usemi na lengo ni kusisitiza

Mfano:

-Dunia ni ngumu jamani, ni ngumu

-Haba na hapa hujaza kibaba

Mdokezo (Aposiopesis)

Hapa msemaji au mwandishi hukatiza maneno au huacha maneno bila kutaja kitu au maneno ambayo kwa  kawaida ni wazi na huweza kujazwa kwa ubunifu.

Mfano:

-Ally alipokuwa analia alisema………………

-Watu wengi huambukizwa ukimwi kwa kushiriki ………………

Tashtiti (Rhetorical Questions)

Ni mbinu ya kuuliza maswali kwa jambo ambalo majibu yake yanafahamika.

Mfano:

-Asha na uzuri wake amekufa?

-Loo! Asha ametutoka?

-Hatakuwa nasi tena?

Nidaa (!)

Huu ni msemo unaoonesha kushangazwa na jambo Fulani. Msemo huu huambatana na alama ya kushangaa

Mfano:

-Baba ndiye amefariki!

-Ah! Havijawa nimekutoroka!

-Hakika nitakupenda!

Mjalizo (Asyndeton)

Hapa huwa ni mfuatano tu wa maneno yasiyo na viunganishi vyovyote bali hutengwa kwa alama ya mkato(,)

Mfano:

-Nilikaa, nikasubiri, nikachoka

-Nilipanda, nikapalilia, nikavuna, nikauza, nikajenga nyumba.

Tanakali sauti (onomatopeia)

Ni mbinu ya kuiga sauti za milio mbali mbali. Milio hii ni ya wanyama, magari, vitu n.k

Mfano:

-Alitumbukia majini chubwi!

-Alidondoka chini pu!

(e)        Taswira

Ni picha zinazojitokeza ndani ya mawazo ya msomaji au msikilizaji wa kazi ya fasihi. Matumizi mazuri ya taswira na ishara hutegemea ufundi wa yanayomzunguka yeye na jamii yake pamoja na historia za maisha                        azijuazo.

Aina za Taswira

(i)Taswira za hisi

Taswira hupenyeza hisia na kuzigandisha akilini mwa msomaji au msikilizaji na kunasisha ujumbe wa mwandishi. Taswira hizi hushughulikia hisi za ndani, na kuweza kumfanya msomaji au msikilizaji awe na wasi wasi aone woga, apandwe na hasira, ahisi kinyaa, n.k

mfano:

Akadharau! Siwezi kula chakula kama hicho! Rojorojo nyororo kama limbwata, mfano wa kohozi lenye pumu,liingie katika koo langu lililozoea kuku wa mrija

-Maelezo hayo humfanya mtu akinahi na kutaka kutapika mara akisoma rojorojo, kunyororoka mfano wa kohozi lenye pumu.

(ii)taswira za mawazo / kufikirika

Hizi zinatokana na mawazo yahusuyo mambo yasiyoweza    kuthibitika. Mambo kama kifo, pendo, uchungu, fahamu, sahau, raha n.k

Mfano:

Kifo umefanya nini? Umeninyang’anya penzi langu bila huruma?    kumbuka, nilimpenda nikapoteza fahamu, kifo ukazidi kunidunga sindano ya makiwa?

(iii)       Taswira zionekanazo

Hizi ni picha ambazo hujengwa kwa kutumia vielelezo tunavyovijua vile vinavyofahamika katika maisha ya kila siku.

Mfano:

Dakika haikupita mijusi wawili wliokuwa wamebebana walipita haraka. Midomo yao ilikuwa myekundu. Ghafla walikutana nanyoka aliyeonekana mnene tumboni. Hapana shaka alikuwa amemeza mnyama.

5.Mandhari / mazingira

Ni sehemu ambamo kazi ya fasihi inafanyika. Mandhari yaweza kuwa ya kubuni kama” Kusadikika” na “Kufikirika” au halisi (ya kweli) mfano mandhari ya Dar es salaam, Arusha n.k. kwa Tanzania.

6   Jina lakitabu / Jalada la kitabu

Hapo  tunaoanisha jina la kitabu na yaliyoelezwa ndani ya kitabu hicho.      Mfano”Kiu ya Haki”, jina hili linasadifu vipi yaliyomo ndani ya riwaya hiyo. Je, kweli yaliyoelezewa yanadhihirisha kiu ya haki? Pia tunaangalia picha mbali             mbali zilizochorwa juu ya jalada la kitabu na kutafsiri kifasihi jinsi picha hizo zilivyotumika.

7.Kufaulu na kutofaulu kwa mwandishi kifani na kimaudhui

Hapa tunaangalia ubora na udhaifu wa mwandishi kifani na kimaudhui katika kazi husika. Hapa vipengele vya fani na maudhui huzingatiwa kwa kina ili kuweza kupima umadhubuti wa kazi hiyo na hatimaye kuamua kwa haki kama mwandishi amefaulu au hajafaulu.

MAMBO 5 YA KUZINGATIA KATIKA MAISHA

Utangulizi

Maisha ni muda ambao kiumbe hai anajaliwa kuishi. Ni hali tofauti kabisa na uzima wa milele , kwa kuwa uhai wake una mwanzo na mwisho.
Hasa mwisho unasababisha maswali: kama kila chenye mwanzo kina mwisho, ya nini kuwepo kwake? Kukosa lengo, kuwepo bure, kutokuwa na maana kunamfanya mtu ajisikie mnyonge, pengine akate tamaa ya kuishi, la sivyo ajitose kufurahia mazuri yanayopatikana maishani, lakini bila uwezo wa kuondoa moyoni ule utupu wa maana unaomtia huzuni ya dhati.
Ndiyo sababu maana ya maisha ni mojawapo kati ya masuala makuu ya binadamu duniani: hawezi kukwepa maswali ya kutoka moyoni mwake kuhusu thamani, madhumuni na umuhimu wa maisha yake.

Mambo 5 ya kuzingatia katika maisha:

1.HOFU YA MUNGU;
Hofu ya Mungu : Hii ni ile nguvu ya Mungu ndani ya mtu inayomfanya asitende dhambi (MWANZO 20:11), Neno hilo linatuonesha kisa cha Ibrahimu baada ya kuona kwamba Wagerari hawana hofu ya Mungu ndani yao na watamuua wakijua Sara ni mkewe kwa alivyokua mzuri, aliamua kuwaambia kwamba ni Dada yake. Ibrahimu aliamua kufanya hivyo kulinda uhai wake. Simaanishi kwamba alikuwa sahihi kusema uongo, lakini nilitaka tuone kwamba hofu ya Mungu ikoje.
Ni ukweli usiopingika kwamba, hakuna mwanadamu anayeweza kuishi maisha matakatifu kama hakuna hofu ya Mungu ndani yake ; hofu ya Mungu huletwa na uwepo wa Roho Mtakatifu ndani ya mtu. Ukiona wewe bado unafanya dhambi na huoni moyo wako ukikuhukumu, basi we jua bado unamwitaji Mungu sana. Ingawa wako ambao wakitaka kufanya dhambi wanahisi kuhukumiwa ndani yao ila wanajikaza kutenda dhambi kwa lazima. Ukiona uko hivyo, bado hofu ya Mungu haimo ndani yako.
Mara nyingi mwanadamu anapotaka kufanya dhambi, huwa anatafuta sehemu iliyojificha ili kwamba Mchungaji wake, wazazi, ndugu, jamaa na marafiki wasiweze kumwona.

2.MUDA;
Muda ni kipindi ambacho mtu aidha alifanya, anafanya au anatarajia kufanya jambo fulani. Katika maisha ya kila siku mwanadamu hutegemea sana muda ili kufanikisha malengo yake.

3.MAAMUZI;
Kwanza kabisa maamuzi ni neno kubwa sana na lenye maana nzito kuliko tunayoitumia kila siku. Unaposema umefanya maamuzi maana yake ni umeondoa uwezekano mwingine wowote wa wewe kufanya jambo tofauti na ulilolifanyia maamuzi. Maana halisi ya maamuzi ni kwamba umechagua kitu kiwe hivyo tu, au umeamua kufanya kitu ulichokiwekea maamuzi na sio kitu kingine hasa kinachopingana na hicho.
Lakini katika maisha yetu ya kila siku tunafanya maamuzi na muda mfupi baadae unavunja maamuzi uliyofanya mwenyewe.
Unasema kuanzia sasa nitajisomea na kujifunza kila siku ili kuweza kupata maarifa yatakayoniwezesha kufikia mafanikio makubwa zaidi. Lakini baada ya muda unaanza kuona kujifunza ni jambo la kawaida na kutokufanya tena kila siku. Hapa ndio unaanza kurudi nyuma, na usiposhtuka mapema utapotea vibaya mno.
Kati ya vitu ambavyo ni lazima ufanyie maamuzi katika maisha yako ni kuamua kuwa hautakubali kushindwa katika maisha yako.

4.MARAFIKI;
Marafiki zako wana nguvu ya kukufanya ufanikiwe ama kukufanya ushindwe kufanikiwa.Kuna watu wengi sana ambao wameshindwa kabisa kufikia katika kilele cha hatima zao kwa sababu tu wameendekeza kuwa na marafiki ambao wamekuwa kikwazo kwa maisha yao.Ila kuna wengine wameshindwa kabisa kufikia kilele cha mafanikio yao kwa kushindwa kutumia vizuri marafiki walionao.Siku zote kumbuka kuwa kila rafiki uliye naye lazima anakuathiri kwa namna fulani-Inawezekana akakuathiri kwa uzuri(Positive) ama akakuathiri kwa ubaya(Negative).Kwa sababu hii,ni lazima kila wakati uwe mtu ambaye unatathmini kuhusu maisha yako na wale wanaokuzunguka na jinsi wanavyochangia kukufanikisha ama kukukwamisha.

5.MALENGO;
Kuwa na malengo ni moja ya chachu kubwa ya mafanikio katika jambo lolote unalofanya kwenye maisha. Malengo yanakupa dira maishani mwako na kukuelekeza usiende mrama kwa kukosa mwelekeo. Malengo yanaweza kuwa vitu vidogo tunavyotaka kubadili leo, pia yanaweza kuwa mambo makubwa tunayotaka kuyafanikisha siku zijazo, iwe baada ya mwezi, mwaka, au hata baada ya miaka mitano! Unaweza ukawa na malengo ya aina mbalimbali; ya kiafya, kikazi, kimasomo, kiuhusiano au kibiashara; jambo la muhimu ni wewe kuwa na malengo.
“Funga macho, vuta picha ya magari mawili yanatembea. Dereva mmoja anajua kuwa anatoka kijiji A na kwenda kijiji B, halafu dereva wa pili wala hajui anakokwenda. Kati ya madereva hao wawili, yupi atafika anakokwenda? Bila shaka jibu litakuwa ni dereva A. Kinachowatofautisha ni malengo, dereva wa gari la kwanza anajua kuwa lengo lake ni kufika kijiji B, hapo atatafuta hata njia ya mkato afike, hata kama hajui njia anaweza akauliza watu akaelekezwa. Dereva wa pili hata kama kuna barabara mbele yake anaweza akafika anakotakiwa kwenda, akapapita au akageuza maana hajui anakokwenda”.

HITIMISHO:
Katika maisha ya mwanadamu kuna mambo mengi tunakutana nayo na mengine ni matokeo ya maisha tunayoishi leo hii.
Kuna mambo kama elimu,umri,mapato,matumizi,mahusiano,tabia na n.k yote haya yana athari chanya na hasi katika maisha ya mwanadamu.Ingawa ukiangalia kwa undani utabaini kuwa mambo tuliyotaja yanagusa nyanja zote hizo na kama yakizingatiwa yatamuwezesha binadamu kuyatawala maisha yake.

VIAMBISHI TAMATI MAANA VYA KISWAHILI

Viambishi tamati– Hivi hudokeza kauli mbalimbali za vitenzi. Mfano: - Anacheza – kutenda Unachezwa- Kutendwa Utachezewa- Kutendewa Nimemlia- Kutendea Wamewasomesha- Kutendesha n.k
Mzizi Kiambishi Kiambishi tamati maana Neno jipya Kauli Viambishi vya kauli Chez a Cheza Kutenda -a e a Chezea kutendea -e- / -i- Pig ian a Pigiana Kutendeana -ian-/-ean- iw a Pigiwa Kutendewa -iw-/ew- Som esh a Somesha Kutendesha -ish-/esh- eshw a Someshwa Kutendeshwa -ishw-/eshw- Lim ik a Limika Kutendeka -ik-/-ek- an a Limana Kutendana -an- w a Limwa Kutendwa -w-
Viambishi tamati katika vitenzi vya Kiswahili.
Viambishi tamati katika lugha ya Kiswahili hujitokeza kudokeza dhima kubwa mbili:- I. Viambishi tamati vya kauli II. Viambishi tamati maana
Kiambishi tamati maana – Hii ni mofimu ya mwisho kabisa katika kitenzi yenye dhima ya kukamilisha maana kusudiwa na msemaji wa tungo hiyo. Mfano:- Pig-a, Chez-w-a, Som-esh-a n.k. Mofimu hizi hujitokieza mbele ya viambishi vya kauli au mbele ya mzizi wa neno lenyewe.
Aina za viambishi tamati maana. Viambishi tamati maana vinajitokeza katika aina tofauti mbili ambazo ni; Viasili na Vijenzi.
1. Viambishi tamati maana viasili Hivi ni vile vinavyojitokeza katika shina asilia la kitenzi husika. Viambishi hivi vipo katika makundi mawili:- a) Vyenye asili katika lugha Kiswahili, hivi huwa ni mofimu (-a) Mfano; Pig-a, Chez-a, Omb-a n.k b) Vyenye asili katika lugha za Kigeni, hivi huwa ni mofimu (-i), na (-u) Mfano; Sal-i, Shukur-u n.k.
2. Viambishi tamati maana vijenzi Hivi ni vile ambavyo hujitokeza katika vitenzi vilivyonyambulishwa. Viambishi hivi hujitokeza kukamilisha dhima zifuatazo:- a) Viambishi tamati maana vikanushi, hivi hukamilisha maana iliyokusudia kuonesha ukanushi wa tendo, huwa ni mofimu (-i) Mfano; Sichez-i, Huimb-i, Hawasom-i, Silal-i N.k b) Viambishi tamati maana Vielekezi, hivi hukamilisha maana iliyokusudia kuelekeza jambo, kitenzi hicho huwa na mofimu ya masharti Ka- na mofimu elekezi huwa ni mofimu (-e) Mfano; Kachez-e, Kasom-e, Kalim-e, Kaog-e N.k c) Viambishi tamati maana Vinominishi, hivi ni vile vinavyobadili kitenzi kuwa nomino, huwa ni mofimu (-aji), (-zi), (-shi), (-o) Mfano; Mchez-aji, Mwi-zi, Mche-shi, Pig-o N.k

OEM 201: EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP

OEM 201: EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP

January 15, 2018
Albert J.Safari

INTRODUCTION
This course on educational management and leadership is meant to equip learners with the knowledge of various aspects in the areas of educational management and leadership. The knowledge obtained from the course could be useful to student teachers and other learners aspiring to develop their knowledge of management and leadership in education. This course is going to cover the following aspects:
1. Management and leadership theories
2. Functions and tasks of management
3. Pedagogical and technical leadership skills
4. Educational management and leadership skills
5. Management of change in educational organizations
6. Management of educational resources
7. Conflict and conflict management in educational organizations
8. Organizational climate and culture in educational institutions
9. Research in educational management and leadership
10. Teacher services organs
COURSE OBJECTIVES
By the end of the course student teachers should be able to achieve the following:
1. To acquire theoretical background of management and leadership;
2. To obtain knowledge and skills for managing educational organizations;
3. To attain leadership skills in managing changes, conflicts, resources and culture in educational organizations.
4. To gain aspects of pedagogical and technical leadership skills to student teachers;
5. To attain basic research skills in educational management and leadership;
6. To gain investigative skills that helps leaders to make rational decisions;
7. To understand public services tools.
LECTURE ONE
THE CONCEPT OF EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP
This lecture introduces the concept of educational management and leadership and a range of other useful terminologies
1. Management
The term management
originated from an Italian word maneggiare which means handle.
Okumbe (1999) defines management as the process of designing, developing, and effecting organizational objectives and resources so as to achieve predetermined organizational goals.
Bose (2003) supports Okumbe by stressing that management is the function of getting things done through people and directing efforts of individuals towards a common objective.
In the biography of Mary Parker Follett (1868–1933) written by P. Graham management is defined as the art of getting things done through the efforts of other people.
Management involves coordinating and overseeing the work activities of others so that their activities are completed efficiently and effectively.
1. Coordinating and overseeing the work of others is what distinguishes a managerial position from a non managerial one.
2. Efficiency is getting the most output from the least amount of inputs in order to minimize resource costs. Efficiency is often referred to as “doing things right”
3. Effectiveness is completing activities so that organizational goals are attained. Effectiveness is often described as “doing the right things”
2. Educational management
Educational management is a complex human enterprise in which different resources are brought together and made available to achieve and to accomplish the desire and expected educational goals or objectives.
Thus management of education or educational management implies the practical measures for ensuring the system to work for achieving the goals or objectives of an educational institution. Educational management operates in educational organizations or institutions.
3. Manager
A manager is someone who coordinates and oversees the work of other people so that organizational goals can be accomplished. A manager is not seeking for personal achievement but helping others do their job. Managers may also have additional work duties not related to coordinating the work of others.
Managers can be classified by their level in the organization, particularly in traditionally structured organizations—those shaped like a pyramid
First-line managers
(often called supervisors) are located on the lowest level of management.
Middle managers include all levels of management between the first-line level and the top level of the organization.
Top managers include managers at or near the top of the organization who are responsible for making organization-wide decisions and establishing plans and goals that affect the entire organization.
4. Administration
Administration is the ability to mobilize human and material resources towards achievement of organizational goals.
Nwankwo (1981) describes administration as the careful and systematic arrangement and use of human and material resources, situations and opportunities for the achievement of specific objectives.
Beach (1975) support the statement by adding that administration is a part of management which is concerned with the installation and carrying out of the procedures by which programs, plans and targets are laid down and communicated, and the progress of activities regulated and checked against them.
5. Educational Administration
Okumbe (1999) defines educational administration as a process of acquiring and allocating resources for the achievement of predetermined educational goals. The field ideally distinguishes itself from administration and management through its adherence to guiding principles of educational philosophy.
Schools or colleges comprise certain personnel i.e. teaching and non-teaching staff as well as the students. These human resources in the school or college work with some materials, such as instructional materials, equipment, and financial resources in order to achieve the objectives of the school/college.
Akinwumi & Jayeoba (2004) define school administration as the scientific organization of human and material resources and programs available for education and using them systematically and meticulously to achieve educational goals. In this case the term educational administration can synonymously be used with the term school administration.
6. The difference between management and administration
Administration may be defined as a process of coordinating human and material resources in order to achieve organizational goals. Administration deals with gathering, processing, and communicating information.
Practically, everybody working for an organization participates in the administrative activities. Even those who do not hold any managerial position participate when receiving written or oral instructions and reporting back on the outcome of their work.
Those who have managerial positions complete much more administrative activities, for example, they are engaged in planning of various processes, and assigning resources to various units of the organization.
Differences between management and administration can be summarized as follows:-
The nature of work. Administration is concerned with the determination of objectives and major policies of an organization. Management puts into action the policies and plans laid out by the administration. Thus, administration plays a determinative function while the management plays an executive function.
The level of authority. Administration is a top-level activity while management is middle level activity.
The nature of status. Administration consists of owners who invest the capital and receive profits or dividend from an enterprise while management is a group of managerial personnel who use their specialized knowledge to fulfill the objective of an enterprise.
Nature of usage. Administration is popular with government, military, educational and religious organizations while management is mostly used in business enterprises.
Main functions. Administration involves planning and organizing functions while management involves motivating and controlling functions.
The abilities required. Administration needs administrative rather than technical abilities. Management requires technical activities. Management handles the employers. Administration handles the business aspects such as finance.
What influence decisions. In administration decisions are influenced by public opinion, government policies, social and religious factors while management decisions are influenced by the values, opinions and beliefs of the managers.
7. Leadership
Is the process of social influence in which one person can enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common task.
According to Rauch & Behling, (1984) leadership is the process of influencing the activities of an organized group toward goal achievement.
House et al., (1999) define leadership as “the ability of an individual to influence, motivate, and enable others to contribute toward the effectiveness and success of the organization…”
Northouse (2004) defines Leadership as a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal.
He further identified four common themes in the way leadership now tends to be conceived: (1) leadership is a process ; (2) leadership involves influence; (3) leadership occurs in a group context; and (4) leadership involves goal attainment .
The leader may or may not have any formal authority. With regards to how leaders emerge various theories have been provided produced involving traits, situational interaction, function, behavior, power, vision and values, charisma and intelligence, among others.
8. Leader
A leader is a person who guides others toward a common goal, showing the way by example, and creating an environment in which other team members feel actively involved in the entire process.
A leader is not the boss of the team but, instead, the person that is committed to carrying out the mission of the venture for example a school.
A leader is a person who influences a group of people towards the achievement of a goal. A leader by its meaning is one who goes first and leads by example, so that others are motivated to follow him. This is a basic requirement. To be a leader, a person must have a deep-rooted commitment to the goal.

HISTORIA YA LUGHA YA KISWAHILI

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ENGLISH VERB TENSES - GRAMMAR RULES

VERB TENSES

Prepared By:Sir.Albert J.Safar

Mobile NO. +255 715 803 005

Mail Address: salbertode@yahoo.com

Verbs come in three tenses: past, present, and future. The past is used to describe things that have already happened (e.g., earlier in the day, yesterday, last week, three years ago). The present tense is used to describe things that are happening right now, or things that are continuous. The future tense describes things that have yet to happen (e.g., later, tomorrow, next week, next year, three years from now).

The following table illustrates the proper use of verb tenses:

Simple Present	Simple Past	Simple Future
I read nearly every day.	Last night, I read an entire novel.	I will read as much as I can this year.
Present Continuous	Past Continuous	Future Continuous
I am reading Shakespeare at the moment.	I was reading Edgar Allan Poe last night.	I will be reading Nathaniel Hawthorne soon.
Present Perfect	Past Perfect	Future Perfect
I have read so many books I can’t keep count.	I had read at least 100 books by the time I was twelve.	I will have read at least 500 books by the end of the year.
Present Perfect Continuous	Past Perfect Continuous	Future Perfect Continuous
I have been reading since I was four years old.	I had been reading for at least a year before my sister learned to read.	I will have been reading for at least two hours before dinner tonight.

Simple Present

The simple present is a verb tense with two main uses. We use the simple present tense when an action is happening right now, or when it happens regularly (or unceasingly, which is why it’s sometimes called present indefinite). Depending on the person, the simple present tense is formed by using the root form or by adding ‑s or ‑es to the end.

I feel great! Pauline loves pie. I’m sorry to hear that you’re sick.

The other is to talk about habitual actions or occurrences.

Pauline practices the piano every day. Ms. Jackson travels during the summer. Hamsters run all night.

Typically, when we want to describe a temporary action that is currently in progress, we use the present continuous: Pauline can’t come to the phone right now because she is brushing her teeth.

How to Form the Simple Present

In the simple present, most regular verbs use the root form, except in the third-person singular (which ends in -s).

First-person singular: I write

Second-person singular: You write

Third-person singular: He/she/it writes (note the ‑s)

First-person plural: We write

Second-person plural: You write

Third-person plural: They write

For a few verbs, the third-person singular ends with -es instead of -s. Typically, these are verbs whose root form ends in o, ch, sh, th, ss, gh, or z.

First-person singular: I go

Second-person singular: You go

Third-person singular: He/she/it goes (note the ‑es)

First-person plural: We go

Second-person plural: You go

Third-person plural: They go

For most regular verbs, you put the negation of the verb before the verb, e.g. “She won’t go” or “I don’t smell anything.”

The verb to be is irregular:

First-person singular: I am

Second-person singular: You are

Third-person singular: He/she/it is

First-person plural: We are

Second-person plural: You are

Third-person plural: They are

How to Make the Simple Present Negative

The formula for making a simple present verb negative is do/does + not + [root form of verb]. You can also use the contraction don’t or doesn’t instead of do not or does not.

Pauline does not want to share the pie. She doesn’t think there is enough to go around. Her friends do not agree. I don’t want pie anyway.

To make the verb to be negative, the formula is [to be] + not.

I am not a pie lover, but Pauline sure is. You aren’t ready for such delicious pie.

How to Ask a Question

The formula for asking a question in the simple present is do/does + [subject] + [root form of verb].

Do you know how to bake a pie? How much does Pauline love pie?

Common Verbs in the Simple Present

Infinitive	I, You, We, They	He, She, It
to ask	ask / do not ask	asks / does not ask
to work	work / do not work	works / does not work
to call	call / do not call	calls / does not call
to use	use / do not use	uses / does not use
to have	have / do not have	has / does not have

The Verb to Be in the Simple Present

Infinitive	I	You, We, They	He, She, It
to be	am / am not	are / are not	is / is not

	Simple Past Tense The simple past is a verb tense that is used to talk about things that happened or existed before now. Imagine someone asks what your brother Wolfgang did while he was in town last weekend. Wolfgang entered a hula hoop contest. He won the silver medal. The simple past tense shows that you are talking about something that has already happened. Unlike the past continuous tense, which is used to talk about past events that happened over a period of time, the simple past tense emphasizes that the action is finished. Wolfgang admired the way the light glinted off his silver medal. You can also use the simple past to talk about a past state of being, such as the way someone felt about something. This is often expressed with the simple past tense of the verb to be and an adjective, noun, or prepositional phrase. Wolfgang was proud of his hula hoop victory. The contest was the highlight of his week. How to Formulate the Simple Past For regular verbs, add -ed to the root form of the verb (or just -d if the root form already ends in an e): Play→Played Type→Typed Listen→Listened Push→Pushed Love→Loved For irregular verbs, things get more complicated. The simple past tense of some irregular verbs looks exactly like the root form: Put→Put Cut→Cut Set→Set Cost→Cost Hit→Hit For other irregular verbs, including the verb to be, the simple past forms are more erratic: See→Saw Build→Built Go→Went Do→Did Rise→Rose Am/Is/Are→Was/Were The good news is that verbs in the simple past tense (except for the verb to be) don’t need to agree in number with their subjects. Wolfgang polished his medal. The other winners polished their medals too. How to Make the Simple Past Negative Fortunately, there is a formula for making simple past verbs negative, and it’s the same for both regular and irregular verbs (except for the verb to be). The formula is did not + [root form of verb]. You can also use the contraction didn’t instead of did not. Wolfgang did not brag too much about his hula hoop skills. Wolfgang’s girlfriend didn’t see the contest. For the verb to be, you don’t need the auxiliary did. When the subject of the sentence is singular, use was not or wasn’t. When the subject is plural, use were not or weren’t. The third-place winner was not as happy as Wolfgang. The fourth-place winner wasn’t happy at all. The onlookers were not ready to leave after the contest ended. The contestants weren’t ready to leave either. How to Ask a Question The formula for asking a question in the simple past tense is did + [subject] + [root form of verb]. Did Wolfgang win the gold medal or the silver medal? Where did Wolfgang go to celebrate? Did the judges decide fairly, in your opinion? When asking a question with the verb to be, you don’t need the auxiliary did. The formula is was/were + [subject]. Was Wolfgang in a good mood after the contest? Were people taking lots of pictures? Common Regular Verbs in the Past Tense Common Irregular Verbs in the Past Tense
	Simple Future Tense The simple future is a verb tense that’s used to talk about things that haven’t happened yet. This year, Jen will read War and Peace. It will be hard, but she’s determined to do it. Use the simple future to talk about an action or condition that will begin and end in the future. How to Form the Simple Future The formula for the simple future is will + [root form of verb]. I will learn a new language. Jen will read that book. My brothers will sleep till noon if no one wakes them up. You will see what I mean. It doesn’t matter if the subject is singular or plural; the formula for the simple future doesn’t change. But… There is another way to show that something will happen in the future. It follows the formula [am/is/are] + going to + [root form verb]. I am going to learn a new language. Jen is going to read that book. My brothers are going to sleep till noon if no one wakes them up. You are going to see what I mean. The “going to” construction is common in speech and casual writing. Keep in mind though that it’s on the informal side, so it’s a good idea to stick to the will + [root form] construction in formal writing. How to Make the Simple Future Negative To make the simple future negative, the formula is will + not + [root form]. Jen will not quit before she reaches her goal. Make sure you arrive on time tomorrow because the bus will not wait for you. He will not say anything bad about his boss. I will not finish my homework in time for class. Using the “going to” construction, the formula is [am/is/are] + not + going to + [root form]. Jen is not going to quit before she reaches her goal. Make sure you arrive on time tomorrow because the bus is not going to wait for you. He is not going to say anything bad about his boss. I am not going to finish my homework in time for class. How to Ask a Question To ask a question in the simple future, the formula is will + [subject] + [root form]. Will Jen finish War and Peace over the summer? Will I have the discipline to study Spanish every day? What will you buy with the money you found? The formula for the “going to” construction is [am/is/are] + [subject] +going to + [root form]. Is Jen going to finish War and Peace over the summer? Am I going to have the discipline to study Spanish every day? What are you going to buy with the money you found? Common Verbs in the Simple Past The “Going to” Construction
	Present Perfect Tense The present perfect is used when an action began in the past yet is still relevant. It’s created by using the present tense of have + the past participle. I have seen You have seen He/she/it has seen We have seen You have seen They have seen Martha has asked for the day off. Who Has Seen the Wind is an excellent book. They have slept in because it’s Saturday morning. Remember to look out for irregular past participles. He has drunk all the milk again. The dogs have lain down in front of the fire. You’ve left your umbrella behind.

		Past Perfect Tense The past perfect, also called the pluperfect, is a verb tense used to talk about actions that were completed before some point in the past. We were shocked to discover that someone had graffitied “Tootles was here” on our front door. We were relieved that Tootles had used washable paint. The past perfect tense is for talking about something that happened before something else. Imagine waking up one morning and stepping outside to grab the newspaper. On your way back in, you notice a mysterious message scrawled across your front door: Tootles was here. When you’re telling this story to your friends later, how would you describe this moment? You might say something like: I turned back to the house and saw that some someone named Tootles had defaced my front door! In addition to feeling indignant on your behalf, your friends will also be able to understand that Tootles graffitied the door at some point in the past before the moment this morning when you saw his handiwork, because you used the past perfect tense to describe the misdeed. The Past Perfect Formula The formula for the past perfect tense is had + [past participle]. It doesn’t matter if the subject is singular or plural; the formula doesn’t change. When to Use the Past Perfect So what’s the difference between past perfect and simple past? When you’re talking about some point in the past and want to reference an event that happened even earlier, using the past perfect allows you to convey the sequence of the events. It’s also clearer and more specific. Consider the difference between these two sentences: We were relieved that Tootles used washable paint. We were relieved that Tootles had used washable paint. It’s a subtle difference, but the first sentence doesn’t tie Tootles’s act of using washable paint to any particular moment in time; readers might interpret it as “We were relieved that Tootles was in the habit of using washable paint.” In the second sentence, the past perfect makes it clear that you’re talking about a specific instance of using washable paint. Another time to use the past perfect is when you are expressing a condition and a result: If I had woken up earlier this morning, I would have caught Tootles red-handed. The past perfect is used in the part of the sentence that explains the condition (the if-clause). Most often, the reason to write a verb in the past perfect tense is to show that it happened before other actions in the same sentence that are described by verbs in the simple past tense. Writing an entire paragraph with every verb in the past perfect tense is unusual. When Not to Use the Past Perfect Don’t use the past perfect when you’re not trying to convey some sequence of events. If your friends asked what you did after you discovered the graffiti, they would be confused if you said: I had cleaned it off the door. They’d likely be wondering what happened next because using the past perfect implies that your action of cleaning the door occurred before something else happened, but you don’t say what that something else is. The “something else” doesn’t always have to be explicitly mentioned, but context needs to make it clear. In this case there’s no context, so the past perfect doesn’t make sense. How to Make the Past Perfect Negative Making the past perfect negative is simple! Just insert not between had and [past participle]. We looked for witnesses, but the neighbors had not seen Tootles in the act. If Tootles had not included his own name in the message, we would have no idea who was behind it. How to Ask a Question The formula for asking a question in the past perfect tense is had + [subject] + [past participle]. Had Tootles caused trouble in other neighborhoods before he struck ours? Common Regular Verbs in the Past Perfect Tense Common Irregular Verbs in the Past Perfect Tense *The past participle of “to get” is “gotten” in American English. In British English, the past participle is “got.” Future Perfect The future perfect is a verb tense used for actions that will be completed before some other point in the future. The parade will have ended by the time Chester gets out of bed. At eight o’clock I will have left. Key words: Verb, past participle, tense, preposition The future perfect tense is for talking about an action that will be completed between now and some point in the future. Imagine that your friend Linda asks you to take care of her cat for a few days while she goes on a trip. She wants you to come over today at noon so she can show you where to find the cat food and how to mash it up in the bowl just right so that Fluffy will deign to eat it. But you’re busy this afternoon, so you ask Linda if you can come at eight o’clock tonight instead. “No, that won’t work! At eight o’clock I will have left already,” she says. What does the future perfect tell us here? It tells us that Linda is going to leave for her trip some time after right now, but before a certain point in the future (eight o’clock tonight). She probably shouldn’t have waited until the last minute to find a cat sitter. The Future Perfect Formula The formula for the future perfect tense is pretty simple: will have + [past participle]. It doesn’t matter if the subject of your sentence is singular or plural. The formula doesn’t change. When to Use the Future Perfect Tense Sometimes, you can use the future perfect tense and the simple future tense interchangeably. In these two sentences, there is no real difference in meaning because the word before makes the sequence of events clear: Linda will leave before you get there. Linda will have left before you get there. But without prepositions such as before or by the time that make the sequence of events clear, you need to use the future perfect to show what happened first. At eight o’clock Linda will leave. (This means that Linda will wait until 8 o’clock to leave.) At eight o’clock Linda will have left. (This means Linda will leave before 8 o’clock.) When Not to Use the Future Perfect Tense The future perfect tense is only for actions that will be complete before a specified point in the future. In other words, the action you’re talking about must have a deadline. If you don’t mention a deadline, use the simple future tense instead of the future perfect tense. Linda will leave. Linda will have left. The deadline can be very specific (eight o’clock) or it can be vague (next week). It can even depend on when something else happens (after the parade ends). It just has to be some time in the future. How to make the Future Perfect Negative Making a negative future perfect construction is easy! Just insert not between will and have. We will not have eaten breakfast before we get to the airport tomorrow morning. They will not have finished decorating the float before the parade. You can also use the contraction won’t in the place of will not. They won’t have finished decorating the float before the parade. How to Ask a Question The formula for asking a question in the future perfect tense is will + [subject] + have + [past participle]: Will you have eaten lunch already when we arrive? Will they have finished decorating the float before the parade? Prepositional Phrases that Often Go With the Future Perfect By this time next week, Linda will have left for her trip. Three days from now, we will have finished our project. At midnight, the party will have ended. Will you have eaten already? Chester will not have arrived by the time the parade is over. When I travel to France, I will have been to ten countries. My sister will have cleaned the bathroom before the party. As soon as someone buys this chair, I will have sold all the furniture I wanted to get rid of. Common Regular Verbs in the Future Perfect Tense Common Irregular Verbs in the Future Perfect Tense *Be careful when using the verb “to be” in the future perfect tense. The construction is easy to confuse with the future perfect continuous tense. **The past participle of “to get” is gotten in American English. In British English, the past participle is got.
		Present Continuous The present continuous verb tense indicates that an action or condition is happening now, frequently, and may continue into the future. The Present Continuous Formula: to be [am, is, are] + verb [present participle] Aunt Christine is warming up the car while Scott looks for his new leather coat. They are eating at Scott’s favorite restaurant today, Polly’s Pancake Diner. Key words: Verb, present participle, tense, dynamic verbs, stative verbs The present continuous (present progressive) tense is a way to convey any action or condition that is happening right now, frequently, and may be ongoing. It adds energy and action to writing, and its effect helps readers understand when the action is happening. Imagine Aunt Christine has surprised her nephew Scott for his birthday and is going to take him out to his favorite restaurant, Polly’s Pancake Diner. If I wanted to tell the story after it happened, I’d use the past tense: They waited at the red light, and Scott worried they might miss their reservation. (Past tense) But what I really want to convey is how the event unfolded, showing the action as it is happening: They are sitting at Scott’s favorite booth, the one with the sparkling red plastic seats.(For how long? We don’t know, but we do know they are sitting there now.) The waiter is standing behind the counter right now with a notepad in his hand and pencil behind his ear. (Will he ever make it over to the booth? Probably, but not now.) “Are you waiting to open your presents after you eat your pancakes?” said Aunt Christine, taking a sip from her root beer. (Here the present continuous is being used in question form.) From this narrative point of view, the action is immediate and continuous; there’s momentum. Sometimes writers use this tense to add suspense or humor in fictional pieces. What kind of pancakes will Scott and his aunt order? The suspense is killing me! The Present Continuous Formula To form the present continuous, follow this formula: To Be [Am, Is, Are] + Verb [Present Participle] When to Use the Present Continuous Tense Use the present continuous tense with the appropriate “to be” verb and a dynamic verb. A dynamic verb shows action and/or process. For example, Scott’s little sister is arriving at the diner two hours late because her roller-derby team, Chicks Ahoy, won the national championships early today. As she is walking into Polly’s Pancake Diner, she is yelling goodbye to her friends outside, and Scott hopes she doesn’t cause a scene since she is always embarrassing him in public. When Not to Use the Present Continuous Tense Do not use the present continuous tense with stative verbs. Stative verbs show a state of being that does not show qualities of change. These verbs can stay in the simple present. For example, Aunt Christine is preferring the maple walnut pancakes over the banana peanut butter ones that Scott loves. Aunt Christine prefers the maple walnut pancakes over the banana peanut butter ones that Scott loves. Here, the stative verb to prefer shows opinion, and therefore should not be conjugated into the present continuous. Stative verb categories include emotion (to love), possession (to belong), and thoughts (to recognize), and none of these should use the present continuous form. The Exception to the Rule Some verbs can be both dynamic and stative! Think about the verbs to be and to think. In its dynamic form, the verb to be can show action: Sarah, Scott’s little sister, is being bold by ordering the jalapeno-chipotle pancakes. But in its stative form, the verb to be is awkward if conjugated in the present continuous. Sarah is being a tall teenager, who loves her food spicy and her sports dangerous. Sarah is a tall teenageer, who loves her food spicy and her sports dangerous. Here are some more examples: The waiter thinks Scott should save room for pumpkin pie. (Stative and in the simple present) The waiter is thinking about getting a new job that requires less human interaction, like a veterinarian. (Dynamic and in the present continuous) Idiomatic Expressions and Style English can be confusing; what is grammatically correct isn’t always what you might hear in music, in advertisements, or during regular conversations. The present continuous is often used incorrectly. Consider the the popular slogan for McDonald’s: “I’m Lovin’ It.” This is a grammatically incorrect sentence because to love is a stative verb, so why would McDonald’s use it in their advertisements? This marks the difference between grammar and style. Using the present continuous as a means to exaggerate is a stylistic trend, and as such, it would not be surprising to hear this conversation: Scott, glazed with a chocolate mustache, looks over to his aunt and says, “I’m lovin’ me some of these chocolate peanut butter banana pancakes!” “I’m hearing what you’re saying!” she replies, sprinkling powdered sugar atop the stacks on her plate. Here Scott and his Aunt display their excitement in a silly way, emphasizing their feelings. On the other hand, you would never hear a native speaker say these sentences: Scott is loving his Aunt Christine, a self-proclaimed pancake connoisseur. (People would simply say “Scott loves his Aunt Christine . . .”) Sarah is hearing the music from their table-top juke box and resists the urge to dance on the table. (Sarah hears the music. . .) The Final Say If you are teaching English or learning it, I’d recommend simply sticking to grammatically correct constructions and leaving the idiomatic expressions to the creators of advertisements and song lyrics. In formal writing, the experts recommend that when you can use fewer words to express a thought, you should, so use the present continuous sparingly—short and sweet can’t be beat! Common Construction in the Present Continuous Tense Common Dynamic Verbs that USE the Present Continuous Common Stative Verbs that DO NOT USE the Present Continuous
		Past Continuous Tense (Past Progressive Tense) The past continuous tense is used to refer to several temporal situations. It’s made with the past tense of be + the present participle (the root word = ‑ing). Narrative in past tense. It was raining. The water was pouring down in sheets and the passersby were getting wetter with every step, despite their umbrellas. When one action is happening at the time of another particular time. It was raining at noon. It was raining during lunch. When one action is happening at the same time as another. It was raining while I was out walking. Remember not to use the past continuous tense with non-action verbs like seem and know. These verbs should use the simple past. I was knowing my neighbour quite well. I knew my neighbour quite well.
		Future Continuous Tense (Future Progressive Tense) The future continuous relates one action in the future to another specific action or time. It’s formed this way: will + be + present participle (root word + ‑ing). We will be going to the gym after work. Will you be joining us? At 5 a.m. tomorrow, they will be departing Alaska. I’ll be returning home next Thursday. Remember not to use the future continuous tense with non-action verbs like seem and know; include be in this list for future continuous tense. These verbs should use the simple future. She will be being here at 3:00. She will be here at 3:00. Past Perfect Continuous Tense (Past Perfect Progressive Tense) The past perfect continuous is written by using the past tense of have + been + present participle. It’s used when one activity in the past was happening before or after another activity had taken place. Look for the words for, since, and before. The car had been sitting in the garage, unused, for a month. It was 5 o’clock; his parents had been waiting for him since 2 o’clock. Before they immigrated, my father had been working as a surgeon and my mother had been training to be a psychiatrist. We’d been walking for only 5 minutes when the rain started. Remember not to use the past perfect continuous tense with non-action verbs like be, seem, and know. These verbs should use the past perfect. The baby had been being cranky all night. The baby had been cranky all night. Future Perfect Continuous Tense (Future Perfect Progressive Tense) The future perfect continuous tense is used much like the future perfect, but one of the actions is likely to continue beyond the other. It can also be used when one action will be continuing at a certain time in the future. Create the future perfect continuous this way: will + have + been + present participle (root + ‑ing). Look for key words like in and by. In September, I will have been going to school for 4/5 of my life. By 2015, you will have been living in Mexico longer than you’ve lived anywhere else. By the end of this month, she will have been working long enough to get benefits. In three months, they will have been seeing each other for a year. Remember not to use the future perfect continuous tense with non-action verbs like be, seem and know. These verbs should use the future perfect. Tomorrow, I will have been being here for a week. Tomorrow, I will have been here for a week.