COMPUTER GENERATION

The word ‘computer’ has a very interesting origin. It was first used in the 16th century for a person who used to compute, i.e. do calculations. The word was used in the same sense as a noun until the 20th century. Women were hired as human computers to carry out all forms of calculations and computations. By the last part of the 19th century, the word was also used to describe machines that did calculations. The modern day use of the word is generally to describe programmable digital devices that run on electricity.

Computer generation; is the development of computer from low technology to high technology in a time abacus was invented till modern times.

Early History of Computer

Since the evolution of humans, devices have been used for calculations for thousands of years. One of the earliest and well-known devices was an abacus. Then in 1822, the father of computers, Charles Babbage began developing what would be the first mechanical computer. And then it 1833 he actually designed an Analytical Engine which was a general purpose computer. It contained an ALU, some basic flow chart principles and the concept of integrated memory.

Then more than a century later in the history of computers, we got our first electronic computer for general purpose. It was the ENIAC, which stands for Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer. The inventors of this computer were John W. Mauchly and J.Presper Eckert.

And with times the technology developed and the computers got smaller and the processing got faster. We got our first laptop in 1981 and it was introduced by Adam Osborne and EPSON.

In history of computer has a five generation; which changed in a difference times. In the history of computers, we often refer to the advancements of modern computers as the generation of computers. We are currently on the fifth generation of computers. Today the evolution of modern computers has changed the course of human history itself and the following are the five generation of computers

FIRST GENERATION (1940-1956) VACUUM TUBES

1st Generation; This was from the period of 1940 to 1955. This was when machine language was developed for the use of computers. They used vacuum tubes for the circuitry. For the purpose of memory, they used magnetic drums.

These early computers used vacuum tubes as circuitry and magnetic drums for memory. As a result they were enormous, literally taking up entire rooms and costing a fortune to run. These were inefficient materials which generated a lot of heat, sucked huge electricity and subsequently generated a lot of heat which caused ongoing breakdowns.

These first generation computers relied on ‘machine language’ (which is the most basic programming language that can be understood by computers). These computers were limited to solving one problem at a time. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape. Output came out on print-outs. The two notable machines of this era were the UNIVAC and ENIAC machines – the UNIVAC is the first every commercial computer which was purchased in 1951 by a business – the US Census Bureau.

Ø  Used vacuum tubes for circuitry in this generation was used vacuum tubes for circuitry

Ø  They were very expensive to operate in vacuum tubes was has a many operate which is important but it is very expensive to operate .

Ø  They were relied on machine language vacuum tubes was used machine language to relied.

Ø  Input was based on punched cards and paper tape when you want to input data should punched card and paper tape to input.

Ø  Output was  displayed on printouts vacuum tubes was used printouts to displayed out put information.

Ø  They were very bigger in size vacuum tube was has a big shape so it take the large place.

SECOND GENERATION (1956-1963) TRANSISTORS

2nd Generation; Here they advanced from vacuum tubes to transistors. This made the computers smaller, faster and more energy efficient. And they advanced from binary to assembly languages. The replacement of vacuum tubes by transistors saw the advent of the second generation of computing. Although first invented in 1947, transistors weren’t used significantly in computers until the end of the 1950s. They were a big improvement over the vacuum tube, despite still subjecting computers to damaging levels of heat. However they were hugely superior to the vacuum tubes, making computers smaller, faster, cheaper and less heavy on electricity use. They still relied on punched card for input/printouts.

The language evolved from cryptic binary language to symbolic (‘assembly’) languages. This meant programmers could create instructions in words. About the same time high level programming languages were being developed (early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN). Transistor-driven machines were the first computers to store instructions into their memories – moving from magnetic drum to magnetic core ‘technology’. The early versions of these machines were developed for the atomic energy industry.

Ø  Used transistors instead of vacuum tubes

Ø  These were also the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology.

Ø  Computers become smaller; transistors computer is smaller than vacuum tubes computer so it is easy to move from on place to another.

Ø  Computer become faster; transistors computers enables person to do the works in a short time because it was faster than vacuum tubes.

Ø  Computer become cheaper to operate; in this generation expensive to operate .

THIRD GENERATION (1964-1971) INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

3rd Generation: The hallmark of this period (1964-1971) was the development of the integrated circuit.

By this phase, transistors were now being miniaturised and put on silicon chips (called semiconductors). This led to a massive increase in speed and efficiency of these machines.  These were the first computers where users interacted using keyboards and monitors which interfaced with an operating system, a significant leap up from the punch cards and printouts. This enabled these machines to run several applications at once using a central program which functioned to monitor memory

As a result of these advances which again made machines cheaper and smaller, a new mass market of users emerged during the ‘60s.

Ø  They used integrated circuit instead of transistors; this generation used integrated circuit instead of transistors.

Ø  Instead of punched cards they used keyboards for inputs: integrated circuit they used keyboard for inputs and not paper tape.

Ø  And monitor for printouts; in this generation of computers used monitors fro printouts

Ø  Increased the speed and efficiency of computer integrated circuits computer they increased speed and efficiency in order to simplify things.

Ø  Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass / audience because they were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.

FOURTH GENERATION (1971-PRESENT)MICRO PROCESSORS

4th Generation; The invention of the microprocessors brought along the fourth generation of computers. This was when we started producing computers for home use. Another important aspect is the development of higher computer languages like C++ and Java.

This revolution can be summed in one word: Intel. The chip-maker developed the Intel 4004 chip in 1971, which positioned all computer components (CPU, memory, input/output controls) onto a single chip. What filled a room in the 1940s now fit in the palm of the hand. The Intel chip housed thousands of integrated circuits. The year 1981 saw the first ever computer (IBM) specifically designed for home use and 1984 saw the MacIntosh introduced by Apple. Microprocessors even moved beyond the realm of computers and into an increasing number of everyday products

The increased power of these small computers meant they could be linked, creating networks. Which ultimately led to the development, birth and rapid evolution of the Internet. Other major advances during this period have been the Graphical user interface (GUI), the mouse and more recently the astounding advances in lap-top capability and hand-held devices.

Ø  The microprocessors replaced integrated circuit this is the generation which removed or replaced integrated circuit and take the position.

Ø  Fourth generation computers also saw the development of graphical user interfaces (GUIS) .GUIS lets you use your mouse to click on icons buttons and menus and everything is clearly displayed on the screen using a combination of graphics and text.

Ø  Computer become  more powerful ,they could be linked together to form networks which eventually led to the development of the internet.

Ø  Development in 1971 located all the components of the computer from central processing unit and memory to input /output controls on a single chip.

FIFTH GENERATION (PRESENT AND THE FUTURE) ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

5th Generation; This is the present and the future of the computer world. The defining aspect of this generation is artificial intelligence. The use of parallel processing and superconductors are making this a reality and provide a lot of scope for the future. Computer devices with artificial intelligence are still in development, but some of these technologies are beginning to emerge and be used such as voice recognition.

AI is a reality made possible by using parallel processing and superconductors. Leaning to the future, computers will be radically transformed again by quantum computation, molecular and nano technology.

The essence of fifth generation will be using these technologies to ultimately create machines which can process and respond to natural language, and have capability to learn and organise themselves.

Ø  Fifth generation computing devices based on artificial intelligence .This generation computers to us the intelligence devices to do computer works.

Ø  The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality.

Ø  Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the face of computers in years to come.

 

Conclusively; Computer generation has gone through different stages evolution due to the development of science and technology that is facing the world and people. Computer in coming days will replace most of human power and people will start working out of their work station and it might be used like remote to operate most of human functions in production and other activities that are now controlling by people in the office by using the current computer generation. Although in present there is also application of digital computer that is operating its services/function without keyboard or mouse but buy using hand touch as the same as  smart phones.

 

 

REFERENCES:

https://www.toppr.com/guides/computer-aptitude-and-knowledge/basics-of-computers/history-of-computers/

https://btob.co.nz/business-news/five-generations-computers/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fifth_generation_computer

https://www.legit.ng/1116732-history-computer-generations.html.

SILABI

SILABI ZA KISWAHILI

Silabi ni kipashio cha kifonolojia kinachohusu matamshi ambacho kwacho sauti za Lugha hutamkwa mara moja kwa pamoja kama fungu moja la sauti. Kuna aina mbili za silabi, yaani silabi funge na silabi huru. 

Silabi huru ni zile ambazo huishia na irabu.

Kwa mfano; la, ma, kwa, mba, n.k.

Silabi funge ni zile zinazoishia na konsonanti ambapo katika lugha ya Kiswahili ni nadra kuzipata maana lugha hii inatumia silabi huru lakini hupatikana katika maneno ya Kiswahili yanayokopwa kutoka katika lugha nyingine.

            Kwa mfano;   Alhamisi – a-l-ha-mi-si

                                    Taksi     - ta-k-si

Miundo ya Silabi za Kiswahili

a.      Muundo wa irabu peke yake (I) - Yapo maneno katika lugha ya Kiswahili yanayoundwa na irabu peke yake kama silabi. Mfano; u+a = Ua, o+a = Oa, a+u = Au, n.k.

b.      Muundo wakonsonanti pekee (K) – Kiswahili hakina maneno mengi yanayoundwa na silabi pekee isipokuwa maneno machache ambayo huwa ni ya nazali /M/ na /N/ na huwa zinatumika ama mwanzoni au katikati ya neno. Mfano; m+ke =Mke, m+bwa = Mbwa, n+chi =Nchi n.k

c.       Muundo wa konsonanti na irabu (KI) – Katika muundo huu konsonanti hutangulia irabu. Mfano; b+a = Ba, k+a = Ka n.k.

d.      Muundo wa konsonanti mbili na irabu (KKI) – Katika muundo huukonsonanti mbili hutangulia irabu. Mara nyingi konsonanti ya pili huwa ni kiyeyusho. Mfano; k+w+a = Kwa, m+w+a = Mwa, b+w+a = bwa, n+d+e = Nde, n.k.

e.       Muundo wa konsonanti tatu na irabu (KKKI) – Muundo wa namna hii hujitokeza katika maneno machache. Mfano; Bambwa, Tingwa, Tindwa,Mbwa, n.k.

f.       Muundo wa silabi funge – Huu hujitokeza katika maneno machache ambayo huwa ya mkopo. Mfano; Il-ha-li = Ilhali,Lab-da = Labda

DHANA YA MOFU

DHANA YA MOFU NA AINA ZAKE

 

 DHANA YA MOFU NA AINA ZAKE

TUKI(1990), katika Dafina ya Lugha wanasema kuwa, “Mofu ni kipashio cha isimu maumbo kiwakilishacho mofimu”.

Massamba (2004), katika Dafina ya Lugha anasema , Mofu ni kipashio cha kimaumbo ambacho huwakilisha mofimu.

Kwa mujibu wa Nida (1949), wanasema, Mofu ni umbo la neno ambalo huwakilisha mofimu na ambalo huthihirika kifonolojia na kiothografia.

Mofu ni kipashio kidogo kabisa chenye maana katika lugha.Mofu hawezi kugawanywa katika sehemu ndogo zaidi bila kuharibu maana yake. Mofu huwakilisha maana za kileksika na zile za kisarufi. (Platt,1985).

Kwa ujumla, Mofu ni kipashio cha kimofolojia ambacho husitiri maana za mofimu katika lugha na huweza kudhihilika kifonolojia zinapotamkwa na kiothografia zinapoandikwa katika lugha.

Mofu huainishwa kwa kuzingatia vigezo viwili; Kigezo cha maana zinazowakilishwa na mofu na Kigezo cha mofolojia ya mofu.

Tunapotumia kigezo cha maana zinazowakilishwa na mofu, tunapata aina tatu za mofu, yaani; mofu huru/sahili, mofu funge na mofu tata,kwa upande mwingine tunapotumia kigezo cha mofolojia au maumbo ya mofu zenyewe tunapata aina mbili za mofu, yaani; mofu changamano na mofu kapa. Hivyo, kwa kuanza na kigezo cha maana zifuatazo ni aina za mofu;

 Mofu huru/sahili; Mofu huru ni zile mofu ambazo zinaweza kukaa peke yake kama maneno kamili yenye maana inayoweza kueleweka bila kusaidiwa na mofu nyingine. Aghalabu, mifano mingi ya mofu huru hupatikana kutoka kwenye vipashio vya lugha, kama ifuatavyo:

-Nomino:  {baba}, {kuku}, {sungura}, {ndege}, {dada}, {paka}.

-Vivumishi: {safi}, {baya}, {dhaifu}, {zuri}, {imara}, {hodari}.

-Viwakilishi:{mimi}, {sisi}, {wewe}, {ninyi}, {yeye), {wao}.

-Vielezi:  {upesi}, {haraka}, {sana}, {leo}, {jana}, {juzi}.

-Vitenzi: {tafiti}, {samehe}, {arifu}, {sali}, {jibu}, {badili}.

-Viunganishi:{na},{halafu}, {bado}, {ila}, {aidha},{pia}.

Kwa hiyo, Kiswahili kinazo mofu huru/sahili nyingi ambazo zimo katika aina karibu zote za maneno(vipashio) za lugha. Hivyo, mofu huru ni mofu ambazo zinaweza kukaa peke yake kama maneno kamili yanayoeleweka bila kusaidiwa na viambishi.

 Mofu funge/tegemezi; Mofu funge au Mofu tegemezi ni mofu ambayo haiwezi kutumiwa peke yake kama neno lililo na maana yake kamili; aghalabu mofu funge hutumiwa kama kiambishi tu kinachoambatanishwa na mzizi au viambishi vingine ili kulikamilisha neno husika. Mofu funge ina sifa zake ambazo ni pamoja na;

-Mofu funge haiwezi kukaa peke yake ikawa neno kamili.

-Mofu funge ni lazima iambatanishwe na angalau mafu nyingine moja ndipo tupate neno

kamili. 

Mifano ya Mofu funge/tegemezi ni kama ifuatayo;

Idadi ya Umoja       Idadi ya Uwingi

m-toto (m)                 wa-toto (wa)

ki-su (ki)                    vi-su (vi)

m-ti (m)                      mi-ti (mi)

Ukumbwa wa Nomino        Udogo wa Nomino

ji-tu (ji)                                  ki-ji-tu (ki)

ji-su (ji)                                  ki-ji-su (ki)

Maana za mofu funge hutegemea sana muktadha wa mofu husika. Mofu funge ikiondolewa kwenye muktadha wake hukosa maana na ni vigumu kujua maana yake bila kuiweka katika muktadha wa neno. Mofu funge inaponing’inizwa peke yake haituwezeshi hata kidogo kujua maana yake. Umbo moja linaweza kuwa na maana nyingi kwa mujibu wa miktadha ambamo imeambatanishwa katika mzizi wa neno.

Aghalabu, mofu funge ni sawa na viambishi vya mizizi mbalimbali katika neno. Hii ina maana kwamba viambishi vilivyo vingi katika lugha huwa ni mofu funge. Tunasema viambishi vingi kwa sababu si viambishi vyote ambavyo huundwa kwa mofu funge.Yapo maneno mengine ambayo ni mofu huru. Baadhi ya mizizi ya maneno pia huwa ni ya mofu funge kwa sababu mizizi hiyo huwa haiwezi kukaa peke yake ikawa neno kamili. Mifano mizuri ya mizizi ya maneno ya Kiswahili ambayo huundwa kwa mofu funge ni ile ya vitenzi vya silabi moja moja,kama ifuatavyo:

Mfano (i): Mizizi ya maneno yenye silabi moja.

Mofu funge               Neno                   

{-l-}             kula 

{-f-} kufa

{-nyw-}       kunywa   

(ii): Mizizi ya maneno yenye silabi nyingi.

Mofu funge Neno

{-chez-} cheza

{-lim-} lima

{-sem-} sema

 Mofu Tata ,Mofu tata ni mofu ambazo huwa na maana zaidi ya moja au kuanzia mbili na kuendelea. Mfano, Ntomoka alimpigia Malamla mpira.

Sentensi hii ni tata kwa sababu ina maana zaidi ya moja.  Utata wa sentensi hii haupo kwenye muundo wake wa kisarufi, bali upo katika kitenzi alimpigia.  Kitenzi hiki kina mofu sita, yaani:

{a-} + {-li-}  + {-m-} + {-pig-} +  {-i-}   + {-a}

   1           2             3            4             5           6

Kati ya mofu hizi zote sita, mofu ya tano {-i-} ndiyo yenye utata. Mofu {i} ni mofu ya kutendea kwa sababu tukisema: ‘Ntomokaalimpigia Malamla mpira’, maana zinazoweza kueleweka na wasikilizaji ni nne:

 (a)   Ntomoka aliupiga mpira kwa niaba ya Malamla; yaani Malamla ndiye aliyetakiwa aupige mpira ule, lakini kwa sababu ambazo hazikuelezwa, badala ya Malamla kuupiga mpira ule, Ntomoka akaupiga.

(b)    Ntomoka aliupiga mpira kuelekea kwa Malamla; yaani Ntomoka na Malamla walikuwa wakicheza mpira. Ikapatikana fursa, Ntomoka akaupiga mpira ule kuelekea kwa Malamla. Kwa hiyo, hapa tunazungumzia mwelekeo wa mpira.

(c)    Ntomoka alimpiga Malamla kwa kuutumia mpira; yaani, Ntomoka anautumia mpira kama ala (silaha) ya kumpigia Malamla.

  (d)  Ntomoka alimpiga Malamla kwa sababu ya mpira; yaani hapa, mpira ndio sababu kubwa ya Ntomoka kumpiga Malamla. Tuseme labda Ntomoka alikuwa na mpira wake, halafu Malamka akauchukuwa kuuchezea na kwa bahati mbaya akaupoteza. Ntomoka anapogundua kwamba Malamla ameupoteza mpira wake, basi ndipo akampiga.

Kwa maelezo hayo, ni wazi kwamba sentensi yetu ina utata kwa kuwa inatupatia maana tofauti tofauti zipatazo nne ambazo zimesababishwa na mofu {-i-} ya kutendea.

Kwa kutumia kigezo cha mofolojia au maumbo ya mofu zenyewe, zifuatazo ni aina za mofu;

Mofu Changamani; Mofu changamani ni mofu ambazo huundwa kwa kuweka pamoja angalau mofu huru mbili au mofu funge na mofu huru na kuunda neno lenye kuleta maana kamili, kwa mfano:

Mofu huru + Mofu huru

- {fundi}  +  {chuma} = fundichuma.                     

- {gari} +  {moshi} =  garimoshi.

Mofu funge + Mofu huru

-{mw} + {ana} + nchi = mwananchi. 

• {ki} + {ona} + mbali = kionambali.

Mofu Kapa; Mofu kapa ni mofu za pekee ambazo hazina umbo. Mofu kapa hazitamkwi wala kuandikwa. Mofu kapa hazionekani katika neno, lakini athari zinazotokana na hiyo mofu kapa husika hueleweka. Ingawa mofu hizi huwa hatuzioni wala kuzitamka au kuziandika, lakini maana zake tunazipata. Nomino za Kiswahili zinaweza kugawanywa katika makundi mbalimbali kulingana na maumbo yake ya umoja na wingi kama ifuatavyo;

=Nomino zilizo na kiambishi awali cha umoja tu, cha wingi ni kapa  (ø)

Mfano:          

            Umoja                        Wingi

u - kuta                       ø - kuta

            u - funguo                  ø - funguo

            u – kucha                    ø- kucha.

        

- Nomino zilizo na kiambishi cha wingi tu, cha umoja ni kapa  (ø)

Mfano:

            Umoja                        Wingi

           ø -kasha                 ma – kasha.

           ø -debe                    ma – debe.

ø-jembe                 ma – jembe

-Nomino zisizo na kiambishi cha umbo la umoja wala wingi.(ø)

Mfano;

Umoja Wingi

ø -mama ø-mama

ø-mbuzi ø-mbuzi

ø-manukato ø-manukato

 Sherehe kuhusu mofu kapa.Kinachotokea hapa ni kwamba ukisema ukucha watu wanaelewa kuwa ni ukucha mmoja tu. Lakini ukisema kucha,  watu wataelewa kuwa ni kucha nyingi.Na hali hii ndivyo ilivyo kwa maneno ufunguo – funguo, ukuta - kuta, inajulikana kuwa ni ufunguo mmoja tu na akisema funguo, ni kwa maana ya wingi lakini umbo  lenyewe linaloileta hiyo maana ya wingi halionekani bayana katika neno.

Ili kuyaeleza haya maumbo ambayo hayapo lakini maana zinazowakilishwa na maumbo hayo zipo, Wanaisimu wamekubaliana kuyaita maumbo  haya kapa, yaani mofu ambazo hazipo. Mofu hizi ni   dhahania tu katika akili zetu kwa kufahamu tu kwamba maana fulani haiwezi kuja tu yenyewe lazima iletwe na mofu fulani. Kwa hivyo, hata kama mofu hiyo haionekani, lakini ipo ni mofu-kapa.

Kwa kuhitimisha, mofu ni umbo muhimu sana katika lugha kwani kupitia maumbo haya ndipo tunaweza kuelewa maana mbalimbali za vitamkwa katika neno kidhahania yaani mofimu, hata mzizi pia ni mofu. Kila lugha ina mofu zake mfano lugha ya kiingereza, Kiswahili na hata lugha za kibantu.

MAREJELEO

Maganga (1997), OSW 102: Historia ya Kiswahili. Chuo Kikuu Huria cha Tanzania.

Masebo, J. A. Nyengwine, N. (2002), Nadharia ya Lugha ya Kiswahili, Kidato cha

5na6.  Aroplus Industries Ltd: Dar es Salaam.

Nkwera, Fr. F. V. (2003), Sarufi, Fasihi na Uandishi wa Vitabu, Sekondari na Vyuo.

Creative Prints Ltd: Dar es Salaam.

Matinde, S.R.(2012), Dafina ya Lugha, Isimu na Nadharia.Mwanza: Serengeti

Educational Publishers.

TUKI. (2014).Kamusi ya Kiswahili Sanifu,Nairobi:Oxford university press.